
ifc "%. a 






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ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY 



AND 



HISTORICAL CHART SYSTEM 



J. R. KAYE, Ph.D., LL.D. 

Author of " Through the Bible in Four Years,'' " The Chart Bible," " Key to the Treasury," " The Chart 
History of the World," Department Editor, " Encyclopaedia of Original Documents 



THE HISTORICAL PUBLISHING COMPANY 
Philadelphia, Pa. 



2 



K* 



Copyright, 1913 
THE HISTORICAL PUBLISHING COMPANY 



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0CI.A35783I 
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PREFACE 



While it is essentially true that there is no royal road to 
learning, it is equally true that the acquisition of knowledge 
may be greatly facilitated by the methods employed. Such 
methods are designed, not as an escape from the labor that 
true learning involves, but the saving of unnecessary labor 
and the placing of facts and processes before the mind for a 
clearer and quicker apprehension. 

This is the aim of the present volume, especially by the 
chart system. It is not necessary to point out the value of 
such a system as a mode of instruction. It is an objective 
method of study designed to interest, simplify and empha- 
size by analysis and centralization of the historic facts and 
movements. The seventeen charts of this system present in a 
condensed form the pathway of history and civilization from 
the beginning of written history to the present time. They 
gather about great- central facts, nations and developments, 
that the student may see at a glance the onward march of the 
race in its struggles and triumphs. Passing from chart to 
chart the centuries lie unfolded, and the process of the historic 
evolution is easily grasped and analyzed. It is scarcely neces- 
sary to point out how the consulting of any of the charts is 



both a convenience and a saving of time and labor. True 
knowledge consists, not so much in remembering certain de- 
tail, but the accumulation of such into a system, or the proper 
apprehension of the world's movements and processes under 
determining principles. 

Accompanying the charts is a discussion of the subject mat- 
ter in a manner both to furnish a key to the charts and to set 
forth the essentials of history. We leave the great mass of 
particulars to the text books in use, but direct the attention to 
the significance of those facts, the steps by which man has 
struggled upward and the causes that have operated in the 
unfolding of the age. 

The small charts being a reduction of the large ones for use 
in the schoolroom renders doubly valuable the use of the latter 
by the teacher by placing the system in the hands of the stu- 
dent for constant reference. 

The plan and scope of the work will at once appear to both 
teacher and pupil as supplementary and at the same time en- 
larging the historic view. J. R. K. 

Oak Park, Ills. 



CONTENTS 



ANCIENT ERA. 

Nations of Antiquity. Chart 1 6 

Nations of the Euphrates Region. Chart 2 20 

Hebrews and Phoenicians. Chart 3 32 

Greece. Chart 4 44 

Rome. Chart 5 60 

MEDIEVAL ERA. 

From the Fall of Rome to the Fall of Constantinople. Chart 6 78 

Medieval Institutions and Renaissance. Chart 7 96 

MODERN ERA. 

From 1453 to the Peace of Westphalia. Chart 8 114 

From 1648 to the French Revolution. Chart 9 128 

From the French Revolution to the Fall of Napoleon. Chart 10 148 

National and Democratic Europe. Chart 11 160 

From the Franco-German War to the Present Time. Chart 12 174 

AMERICA. 

The New World— Colonial Period. Chart 13 190 

Revolutionary Period— The New Nation. Chart 14 196 

Critical and Constitutional Periods. Chart 15 202 

Organization and Development. Chart 16 208 

From the Civil War to the Present Time. Chart 17 214 



\ SMemphiie Period, 3892-2423 &.G. Dynasties 1-10 
1 riheban Period. 2423-1091. Dynasties 11-20. 
titty ksos SCings, 2100-1590. Sxpelled. 
ffCew ffheban Smpire. 
tfeli\. Gonquests. diis interest in art. 
tRameses II. Glimax of Sgyplian monarchy. 
tfaite Pe rio d. 1091-332. Dynasties 21-30. 

1. Psammeticus. Gast offCtssyrian rule, 

2. eKecho II. diis war with Israel. 
Under Gambyses king of Persia. 
Egyptian rule during 30th dynasty. 
Persian rule during 31st dynasty. 
Gonquered by Alexander, 332. 

Ghina—jGand of traditions 



Stations of Ctntiquity 
&gypi-'$eginning of Written 3~fistory 



3. Glosing 
Period 



r7n fluence 



G 



Priests teachers of Sreek philosophers. 
Sovernmeni 

She king a god, absolute ruler. She land his. 
{Religion 
ffCing the high priest. $ook of the Dead. 
ivilization 

Pyramids, Sfemples, Palaces. tMira- 
cles of art. 3he stone civilization. 



architecture 
tfcie n ce 
Sculpture 



&u&ii, founder of the nation, 2852 $.G. 

Dynasties 
1. Ghow, 1122-255. 
2.Ghin, 255-206. 
3.dian, 206-190. 



Givilization 



4. dang, 618-905 Ct.D. 
h.tMongol, 1215-1368. 
S.ZMing, 1368-1650. 




tftudy of the heavens. Division of 
time by the cfun.ffiasis of calendar, 
cfiatues of gods, kings, animals. 

3he tRosetld tftone 
fjfndia-a/Oand of tf acred ffiooks 



government. (T patri 
arc hal monarch y. 

jGiterature. e/he tnine 
Glassies-basis of edit 
cation, influence 
of traditionalism. 

Sducation. (Tncient 
memorizing method) 



itill 



preva 



lent. 



&el 



eii gion. 



Gonfucianism. 

(Fn ethical system, 
efaoism. jQaoSfze. 
Suddhism. 216 $.G. 
(trt. 



cfculpture, clay-mod- 
eling, wood-carving. 
Painting Sthcent.OD, 



Ghart 1 



_. Plains of r^ndus settled 2000 @.G. 
2..*felllement on Ganges 1000 or 1500 $.G. 
3.£from (Alexander to the present time. 
(Alexander defeated Porus, 327 $.G. 
efeleucus clficator received Sndia. 
cPCew kingdom under Ghandra Sfupli, 315 $.6. 
Sriiish conquest 2000 years after (Tlexander. 
Gi viliza tio n 



jQiterature. ffhe Vedas, sacred dryan $ooks. 
(Religion and Philosophy. She l^edic {Religion. 

ffirahminical Pantheism. $uddhism, 500 $.G. 
(frt. Sssentially religious, architecture from 

250 $.G. Suddhistic school of sculpture. 

Painting dates from the first century ff.D' 

Pottery and working in gold. 



Essentials of History 

ANCIENT ERA-NATIONS OF ANTIQUITY 



I. The Philosophy of History. 

At the beginning of these studies let us be sure that we 
understand our subject. Emerson has said that history is 
only biography. But that simplifies the real question only in 
a measure. If the study of history is but the study of the 
individual, the social unit, the question remains, how are we 
to understand the individual ; how connect the particular facts 
with general principles? 

The last statement distinguishes the deeper meaning of 
history. History is something more than a series of events, 
something more than a string of historical beads with the 
string ignored or left out of account. The philosophy of 
history is the relation of particular events to their underlying 
causes and conditions. Not until this relation is discovered, 
and the processes by which certain things have become in- 
evitable are understood can it be said that history has been 
invested with its true meaning. To understand why certain 
things operative in the Roman state produced certain neces- 
sary results is not only to grasp their significance in regard 
to Rome, but to reach that larger generalization, i. c, that the 



same causes operative elsewhere under similar conditions will 
produce similar results. The principles and conditions that 
determined the French Revolution would bring about an 
American or an English Revolution on the general principle 
already formulated, that like causes under similar circum- 
stances produce like results. 

When it is said that "the whole of history is in one man" 
several things are suggested : the first is, that the whole simply 
expresses the characteristics of the parts. The individual man 
is the measure of a community of men. The nation, composed 
of individuals, is subject to the law of individuals. It must pass 
through its various evolutions from infancy to youth, maturity 
and old age under the same determining laws as govern in- 
dividual development. We no more look for the civilization 
of the Elizabethan Age in the time of Alfred the Great than 
we would expect the boy to produce Shakespeare's Hamlet. If 
we understand the processes by which the individual life 
passes on from stage to stage then we have the key to the 
history of the race in its struggles, defeats and triumphs, mov- 
ing under the impulse of a common human law. 

What we wish to emphasize is, that the study of history can 



8 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



mean little or nothing to us unless we invest the particular 
effects with their causal significance, or discover the grounds 
of these historic expressions. Watching these seeds in their 
germination, understanding the environments and the operation 
of forces upon that hidden life, we shall look for the bud, the 
blossom and flower as necessary stages in the process. The 
root may lie in Egypt and the flower appear in Greece, but it 
is the peculiar interest that attaches to this all-important study 
that we follow these movements from nation to nation, from 
age to age, in order to properly articulate the parts, and thus 
intelligently interpret the present by all the contributions of 
the past. 

II. Rise of Civilizations. 

The student will note the central fact of Chart i. About it 
gather all the interests of this early period. Man has evolved 
from his pre-historic state. Primitive man wrote his history 
in the form of tools and weapons and left much for us to de- 
cipher from his habitation and his graves. We see him as he 
passes through the Paleolithic, or the Old Stone Age, the Neo- 
lithic, or the New Stone Age, the Bronze Age and Iron Age, 
each period distinguishing a larger intelligence, and a better 
adaptation to his surroundings. By these early remains we 
can see how man struggled out of his primitive state into that 
of civilization. For this pre-historic period Science has been 
unable to fix a date. A new step must be taken in passing 
from the pre-historic to the historic, t. e., the invention of 



writing and the written records of human events. These de- 
note the new period that we call historic. 

III. Egypt — Beginning of Written History. 

The location and physical conditions of a land have much to 
do with the history of its people. It may be isolated, limiting 
its communication with other nations and depriving it of the 
advantage of intercourse. Instead of expanding by means of 
contact it would become self -centered and contracted in its 
development. If, on the other hand, it holds a central position, 
and its surroundings are such as to enable it to come into re- 
lations with other states, the whole order of its life is altered by 
the new conditions of communication and the new demands 
made upon it by its neighbors. Thus the geographical is an 
important factor in national life and development. Had 
Egypt been differently situated with reference to Mediterranean 
states her history would not have been the same, as her con- 
tact with Rome and Greece would have been different. How 
much easier it was for Rome to affect her interests than it was 
for Babylon. Alexandria could never have become such a 
civilizing center had it been located in the heart of Africa. 

The same is true regarding internal conditions. Egypt 
would have been impossible without the Nile, her very life. 
Had there been no Nile there would have been no Egypt. And 
being so essential to the life of the people, in their religious 
system it is invested with a divine character, became a leading 
deity, and hence enters into the ideas and civilization of the 



ANCIENT ERA. 



people. Thus we can understand something of the consterna- 
tion that seized the Egyptians when at the time of the Jewish 
Exodus the plague of turning the Nile to blood was visited 
upon them. It gave rise to a new question ; the problem of a 
greater power or Deity than the Nile confronted them. All 
these things enter essentially into a nation's life and through 
its civilization eventually leaves its impress upon the whole 
world. 

Again, by natural provisions a nation is enabled to develop 
along particular lines. Had great quarries not been accessible 
to the Egyptians that great "stone civilization" would never 
have appeared. To appreciate this fact it is only necessary to 
compare the Egyptian achievements with the Babylonian. The 
latter limited by natural conditions, as the former were not, 
must develop in another way. 

In our study of Egypt the questions of first importance with 
us are : What were her ruling principles ? What was her con- 
tribution to human life and civilization? Her dynasties have 
passed away, but what dynamic forces persist? 

i. The Three Great Periods. 

(i.) The Memphite Period. 

That Egyptian antiquity might be carried back to 8000 B. C. 
is the view of many scholars. Great in her antiquity, she was 
also great in her creations. The 70 pyramids on the west of 
the Nile are still standing testimonies to her tremendous 
activities. The ages look down upon them in their massiveness. 



But this "solidified history" is the expression of what is deeper 
and more vital than all the mystery of their construction. We 
stand in wonder before these colossal monuments of archi- 
tecture and speculate as to how the Egyptian managed to rear 
them. But there is a greater fact than that. Not how, but 
why did they build them? Of what ideas were these but the 
expression, and in what measure did such ideas dominate the 
life and thought of the people? That the great pyramid, 
Cheops, was a tomb embodying a fundamental idea is of more 
importance than the fact that upon it 100,000 men labored for 
20 years, and contains 2,300,000 blocks of stone. 

(2.) The Theban Period. 

For 500 years of this period Egypt was ruled by the Hyksos 
or Shepherd Kings — the word Hyksos being derived from the 
Egyptian Hyk, a king, and Sos, a shepherd. This Asiatic 
horde invaded Egypt about 2100 B. C. 

The evidence is quite convincing that Joseph the Israelite 
was made prime minister of Egypt by a Hyksos King, while 
Jacob, his father, and his brethren were settled comfortably in 
Goshen. This line of kings on the throne would be much more 
favorable to this settlement of the Israelites than if Egyptian 
kings ruled. The account in Genesis states that Joseph ad- 
vised his father, if asked by Pharaoh as to their occupation, to 
say that they were shepherds, which was also the truth. But 
the Egyptians hated shepherds and the Jews because they were 
under the dominion of these foreign invaders. 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY, 



Perhaps nothing in the whole Egyptian history is of greater 
significance than this settlement of the Israelites in the land 
for an extended period. It distinguishes the relation of the 
nation to one of the most important facts in history. No other 
nation was destined to exert such an influence upon mankind 
as the Jewish race. Divinely selected to bring to the world a 
monotheistic religion and finally the Messiah, it was necessary 
that they should be removed from Palestine until they had 
grown to be a nation and thus be separated from the idolatrous 
races of Canaan. Egypt furnished them a home under favor- 
able conditions in which to develop and become sufficiently 
strong to take the land given to Abraham, the father of the 
nation. Again, being despised by the Egyptians and isolated 
in Goshen they were preserved from commingling with that 
idolatrous people. Famine drove them to Egypt, but it was 
equally important that they should return to Palestine at the 
proper time and be broken away from their happy and pros- 
perous condition in Goshen when the new generation might be 
inclined to forget that their stay in Egypt was but temporary 
and for providential purposes. To break up this interest in 
their peaceful sojourn a Pharaoh arose who knew not Joseph, 
and a persecution was instituted. In other words, the Hyksos 
domination came to an end. The foreigners were expelled 
about 1500 B. C, and Egyptian kings again came to the 
throne. Under the severe persecution it needed only a Moses 
to lead them forth now a strong nation, and forty years later, 
under Joshua, became installed in their own land. 

It was during this Theban period that the glories of the 



Egyptian monarchy culminated. During the nineteenth dy- 
nasty (1440-1270), the nation advanced to greater glory than 
was secured during the eighteenth when the empire was ex- 
tended and every city was decorated with palaces and temples 
and other testimonials to the deeds of the kings. In the nine- 
teenth dynasty fall the great achievements of Seti I, both his 
victories and the construction of some of the greatest monu- 
ments of ancient art. He was followed by Rameses II the 
Great, the Sesostris of Herodotus. During his brilliant reign 
of sixty-seven years the Egyptian monarchy came to its glor- 
ious consummation. 

(3.) The Saiite Period. 

With this period the greatness of the empire passes away 
and comes to its close. During the reign of Necho II (610- 
595), the nation is brought into conflict with Judah (2 Kings 
xxiii-xxiv), whom he defeated and in turn was defeated by 
Nebuchadnezzar, who at the same time captured Jerusalem. 

During a period of 8,000 years or more Egypt rose to her 
zenith, while her declension and fall required but one-seventh 
of that time. The fall of a nation is, in some respects, as im- 
portant an event to the world at large as its rise or progress. 
It was an event fraught with the greatest significance, when 
Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332 B. C. A new 
civilization was ruling the world and was to be given a new 
expression in Alexandria, following Athens, where mighty in- 
tellectual forces should meet in conflict with Christianity, and 



ANCIENT ERA. 



where victories should be won as they never were in the in- 
tellectual center of Greece. Thus the fall of a nation might 
mark its greatest moment in its world-wide relation. 

Questions. 

1. What periods and dynasties were represented by the 
three great periods? 

2. What were the distinctive features of the fourth 
dynasty ? 

3. In what respects did the twelfth dynasty become dis- 
tinguished ? 

4. By what king were the Hyksos expelled from Egypt? 

5. State some of the great military exploits of Seti I. What 
were some of his great architectural and engineering con- 
structions ? 

6. In what manner did Psammeticus relieve the nation, 
and in what way did Grecian influence manifest itself under 
his reign? 

7. For how long a period was Egypt subjected to Persian 
rule? 

2. Civilization — Ruling Ideas. 

Ideas and principles in childhood are seeds out of sight, 
awaiting their fruition in coming years. The race was a child 
in Egypt. What has she contributed to' our maturity? The 
development of the race is a growth stepping upon lower rungs 



upon which it should never remain, but without which it could 
never climb. 

Protected on the west by an impassable desert, and on the 
east by the Red Sea for a great period Egypt was protected 
from surrounding nations during which time they were enabled 
to develop a civilization that was destined to exercise an in- 
fluence for centuries over Europe and the East. 

(1.) As the teacher of Greek philosophers. 

Nations like individuals can do through others what they 
could never have done by themselves. The world through 
Europe was enriched by the Saracenic civilization, the great 
intellectual result of the Crusades. Egyptian priests stimulated 
the Grecian mind that created the most brilliant intellectual 
civilization in human history. Egypt "lit the torch of civiliza- 
tion and passed it on to the West." 

(2.) Government and Religion. 

Basic governmental ideas were determined by the religious. 
The King was a god. As such it was only proper that he 
should be the high priest of the nation, and as a god the land 
belonged to him, subject to certain division. The feudal system 
that prevailed is to be found in some of its features in Europe 
at a later day. 

The most dominant fact of Egyptian life was the religious. 
A religious nature is the ground of religious expressions. It 
is constitutional in human nature. No set of conditions or 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



circumstances ever created it with similar conditions perpetu- 
ating it. In the earliest days of the race this fact is estab- 
lished. The nature persists in all races, the ideas and forms 
may be different. The race may undergo radical changes, but 
it has never outgrown what was the deepest fact in Egyptian 
life. 

In the Book of the Dead, the Bible of Egypt, we see how 
deeply rooted was the idea of immortality. It exercised a 
powerful influence over their life. It built pyramids and 
temples, miracles of workmanship. The religious stamped it- 
self upon the head of the nation, the Nile and various animals. 
It commanded supreme attention. Thus this early history, 
from the very dawn of civilization, teaches us what is con- 
stitutional in our life. Out of it grew the embalming system, 
believing as they did that the immortality of the soul de- 
pended upon the preservation of the body. 

(3.) Architecture. 

It is stamped throughout with magnitude and sublimity. In 
these qualities it has persisted all down the ages challenging 
future civilizations to exceed it. It has made impressions 
never to be effaced. We cross the seas to stand in the presence 
of these mighty monuments that we might see the race at its 
best in this type of achievement. After Egypt, man will build 
his temples of religion in every age, and compel the marble in 
one form or another to express his ideas and ideals. 



(4.) Egypt's great bequest to the future. 

It lay in the discovery of writing and paper making. One 
of her most useful productions was the papyrus reed. From it 
many things were constructed, but its most valuable use was 
the manufacture of paper. 

Egypt was thus the first to record her history and passed the 
art on to others. The result is comprehended in the term 
"History." 

Topics for Study. 

There is a twofold purpose in suggesting topics for study. 

1 . As a Help to Teacher and Pupil. 

Supplementary work is a feature in the school system of 
to-day, especially in the assignment of topics for additional 
investigation, thus giving the pupil essential training in personal 
research. Hence the topics for study in connection with 
these studies. What is equally important is the bibliography. 
It is a common experience that pupils are at a loss to know 
where to seek the necessary information, and in applying to 
the public library are not always directed to the proper 
sources. It is our aim to obviate this difficulty as much as 
possible and facilitate the gathering of the desired material. 

2. As a help to Study Circles, the Woman's Club, and such 

organizations engaged in historical study. 

Methods of procedure by such societies are often mistaken 
by failing to recognize the fact that history is a unit, that is, 



ANCIENT ERA. 



13 



that the world's life and civilization have proceeded from point 
to point through the ages and can be truly understood only by 
following the historical stream. Before taking up particular 
countries or periods, detaching them from their larger rela- 
tions, they should be seen fundamentally as parts of the whole 
in the historic movement in which they inhere. By the means 
of the Charts, the general discussion and topics suggested, a 
plan of definite study is provided furnishing a sound and 
necessary basis for all special studies that might afterwards be 
pursued. 

We submit the following topics on Egypt : 

1. Beginnings of Egyptian History. Maspero's Dawn of 
Civilization. History of all Nations, Vol. I, 1-60. 

2. Original Sources of Egyptian Literature and History. 
Sheldon's General History, pp. 10-15, and West's Ancient His- 
tory, pp. 35-38. History of All Nations, Vol. I, 113, 136. 

3. Discovery of the Remains of the First Three Egyptian 
Dynasties. The Atlantic Monthly for Oct., 1900. 

4. Period of the Hyksos Kings. History of All Nations, 
Vol. I, 29, 46, 61. Was Joseph prime minister at this time? 
Sayce's Higher Criticism and the Monuments, pp. 215-233. 

5. The Period of Rameses II. Represented in Eber's in- 
teresting novel Uarda. 

6. Religion and Mythology. Maspero's Dawn of Civilization 
and The Beliefs of Mankind, pp. 90-102. History of All 
Nations, Vol. I, 53 f f. 

7. Egyptian Architecture. Fergusson's History of Archi- 
tecture. History of All Nations, Vol. I, 74-107, 271-322. 



8. Egyptian Arts and Education. Erman's Life in Ancient 
Egypt. 

9. Manners and Customs of Egypt, by Wilkinson. 

10. The Papyrus Reed and Manufacture of Paper. Progress 
of Nations, Vol. I, pp 71-72. 

11. The Rosetta Stone — the Key to Egyptian Treasures. 
This subject will introduce the important study of Archeology, 
by which we have been brought to the very sources of much of 
our knowledge of ancient times. History of All Nations, Vol. 
I, 40, 108, xxi, 33. 

IV. China — The Land of Traditions. 

Ancient China had an area a little less than one-half of the 
United States, or about 1,500,000 square miles. The China of 
to-day has an area one and one-fourth times larger than that 
of the United States and sustains a population of 400,000,000. 

The early history of China is obscure. It is with the Middle 
Kingdom that ancient history is largely concerned. Isolated by 
the surrounding mountains and deserts the people were prac- 
tically shut in to themselves and prevented from intercourse 
with other races. The result was that the nation was denied 
the opportunity of interchange both in products and ideas. 
From these circumstances China furnishes us the "unique op- 
portunity of studying at first hand an ancient civilization prac- 
tically untouched by modern ideas." 

From the text-books the student will get the details relating 
to the early settlement about 3000 B. C. and founding of the 



14 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



nation; that the Chow Dynasty is the beginning of authentic 
history and maintained the feudal system for 900 years ; that 
in the Chin Dynasty this system was abolished, the Great Wall 
1500 miles long was built and that Prince Cheng destroyed all 
books and scholars believing them to be productive of evil; 
that in the Han Dynasty libraries were restored and Buddhism 
introduced; that the Tang Dynasty extended the empire and 
its commerce, developed the art of printing by blocks, and 
Mohammedanism was introduced ; that in the Mongol Dynasty 
the Kins and Sungs were conquered, and laws, literature, com- 
merce and public works greatly developed; that the Ming 
Dynasty is the beginning of modern China, that Hung-Wu cast 
off the Mongol yoke and founded the New Dynasty. Thus we 
have a condensed statement of the six great Dynasties. The 
student is referred to the chart for the periods which these 
dynasties embrace. 

Questions. 

1. By whom, according to native traditions, was China 
settled ? 

2. Who was the first of the "Five Rulers" of the mythical 
period, and what was his distinction? 

3. What are some of the things said to be accomplished by 
these legendary rulers? 

4. When did authentic Chinese history begin? What were 
the developments of the Chow Dynasty, and what was the 
state of things when Confucius was born? 



5. From what did China derive its name? What four 
great things happened under the rule of Prince Cheng? 

6. What was added to the empire during the Han Dynasty? 

7. What did the conquests of the Tang Dynasty do for the 
extension of the empire? 

8. Under what Dynasty did the empire attain to its highest 
development, and what were some of the gains of this period? 

, Civilization — Ruling Principles. 

This Mongolian race presents to us ancient life from several 
different angles with one outstanding fact that teaches its own 
lesson. 

1. Government. 

In this patriarchal monarchy the emperor stands in the re- 
lation of a father to his people. It is impossible for him to be 
an absolute despot, for his power is restricted to the ancient 
laws and customs. 

2. Religion. 

Three systems have existed in China. 

(1.) Confucianism. This has been the leading religion, 
based on the teachings of Confucius (551-478). It is a religion 
cast in an ethical form, and hence is more ethical than religious. 

(2.) Taoism. The founder of this system was Lao Tze, a 
contemporary of Confucius. One distinction is that at first it 
opposed idolatry. Lao Tze taught asceticism. The system be- 



ANCIENT ERA. 



•5 



came degraded, being reduced by its priests to jugglery, for- 
tune-telling, and the like. 

(3.) Buddhism. This religion was introduced 216 B. C. In 
its doctrine of immortality, true believers escape all pain and 
sorrow, existing in a blissful and hallowed land in the West. 
Like Taoism it has been degraded by the priests, who for 
corrupt purposes have invested it with all sorts of superstition. 

3. Education. 

Ancient methods of 2000 years ago are still in vogue, such 
as the memorizing system and that of symbolic writing. Those 
who fail to secure official positions, for which education is the 
main incentive, find a place among the teaching and clerical 
classes. 

4. Literature. 

All learning is based upon the "Nine Classics," five of which 
were prepared by Confucius, and four by his disciples and 
others. The Chinese have distinguished themselves as narra- 
tive and topographical writers. By inventing engraved blocks 
for printing another means was furnished for the extension 
and preservation of knowledge. 

5- Art. 

This consists of sandstone sculptures, while from ancient 
times they have worked in wood-carving and clay-modeling. 
Painting dates from the 3th century A. D. 



6. Traditionalism. 

This is the one distinctive fact of Chinese history and civil- 
ization — her reverence for tradition. We have already seen 
how that great states teach us great truths. We learn from 
the positively evil as well as from the positively good. At this 
shrine of traditionalism the Chinese have knelt throughout the 
ages. It made him an imitator but destroyed his originality, or 
at least has restricted its exercise. It has cramped his mind 
and dwarfed his literary development. It has left an ancient 
civilization untouched by modern ideas. It has blinded him 
to the good in other systems, for he points with pride to the 
antiquity of his institutions. What it has done for him in the 
way of nationality and the exemplification of certain virtues 
it has also stagnated him in the great onward movement in 
the world's progress. Thus we get at the underlying cause of 
this historic spectacle, and it stands before the world as an 
object lesson, an attitude of mind inimical to the law of pro- 
gressive development. This fact is emphasized when we place 
modern Japan in contrast with modern China. 

Topics for Study. 

For the history of China, Giles' Historic China and Wil- 
liams' Middle Kingdom are recommended. 

1. The Great Wall of China. History of All Nations, Vol. 
II, 341- 

2. The attempt to destroy traditional influence during the 
Chin Dynasty. 



1 6 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 






3. The Golden Period— the Han Dynasty. History of All 
Nations, Vol. II, 342. 

4. The historic movement from 618 to 1650 A. D. 

5. The Chinese language. Walters' Essays on the Chinese 
Language. 

6. Chinese Literature. A History of Chinese Literature by 
Giles. 

7. Chinese Art. Giles' Strange Stories from a Chinese 
Studio. 

8. Religion. Legge's Life and Teachings of Confucius; 
The Beliefs of Mankind, pp. 186-198. History of All Nations, 
Vol. II, 334, 339- 

9. Present Tendencies in China. What are the indications 
of an awakening? History of All Nations, Vol. XX, 433; 
XXIII, 382. 

V. India — The Land of Sacred Books. 

What was true of China regarding her isolation by natural 
conditions was also true of India, and hence we may look for 
the development of a civilization peculiarly its own. 

Historical. 

There are three distinct historical periods: 

1. That of the Aryan invaders, who settled in the Plains of 
the Indus about 2000 B. C. These Indo-Europeans probably 



migrated from central Asia and belonged to the race that 
created the Persian kingdom, were the ancestors of the Greeks 
and the founders of Rome. 

2. The settlement on the Ganges from 1500 to 1000 B. C. 
Some place this settlement at the former, others at the latter 
date. It was during this period that the caste system arose. 
It was at first distinguished on the basis of color on account 
of the mixture of races. This system represents four classes : 
soldiers and rulers ; Brahmans or priests ; farmers and mer- 
chants; laborers and mechanics. 

3. Greek-Roman and British periods. As in the case of 
Egypt the time has come for a great change to occur in the 
history and development of this people, and that by the same 
power. When Alexander entered the Punjab, in 327 B. C, and 
defeated Porus, new conditions arose. At his death, when his 
empire was divided between his four generals, India fell to 
Seleucus Nicator. who established the Syrian monarchy. 

In 315 B. C, a new kingdom arose under Chandra Gupti, 
who received from Seleucus the Greek section in the Punjab, 
thus bringing India under the influence of Grecian civili- 
zation. Thus we find ancient civilizations brought together, 
the isolation of the one touched by the universality of the 
other. 

After many encroachments, 2000 years after the invasion of 
Alexander, India is conquered by a modern power, and 
brought under the new social and governmental systems of 
Great Britain which have exerted a powerful influence upon 
the life and development of that people. 



ANCIENT ERA. 



Questions. 

i. How does the territory of India compare with that of 
the United States in extent? 

2. In the absence of reliable historic facts of the early 
history of the Hindus upon what do we depend mainly for 
our knowledge of the people? 

3. What is the earliest historic Indian date thus far known? 

4. Why did Alexander not push on to the Ganges ? 

5. What were some of the things he did in India? 

6. What hordes poured into northern India during the first 
six centuries of the Christian era? 

Civilisation — Ruling Ideas. 

It is with the India of antiquity we are concerned, to note her 
early development and ruling ideas, and the effect of her 
civilization upon herself and the world. 

1. Literature. 

The Vedas, the Bible of India. It is upon these books of 
the Aryan invaders that we rely for our knowledge of the 
people. The Rig- Vedas are lyrics (1017) addressed to the 
gods. By them we are enabled to trace the early social and 
religious development of the people. The language in which 
the Vedas were written was the old dialect which later devel- 
oped into Sanskrit. The Mahabharata, which dates back to 
500 B. C, was the great epic. 



2. Religion and Philosophy. 

(1.) The Vedic Religion. There was both an early and later 
form, the former being of a more cheerless and gloomy char- 
acter. The forces of nature represent the chief divinities. 
Following the doctrine of immortality came the doctrine of 
Transmigration. 

Contrary to the view sometimes held that Monotheism (doc- 
trine of one God) evolved from Polytheism (many gods), the 
reverse is true. The farther back we go in the sacred litera- 
ture both of India and Egypt the more distinct monotheism be- 
comes, while the later forms express a more decided poly- 
theism. 

(2.) Brahminical Pantheism. Pantheism signifies that "All 
is God" — pan all and theos God. Into pantheism polytheism 
passed. In this system Brahma is the supreme being, the 
source of all things, but is impersonal. Briefly stated, the 
theory of reincarnation is, that to become absorbed into 
Brahma is to escape reincarnation, but such absorption or 
union involves the annihilation of self or distinctive per- 
sonality. The failure to come into such union with the All is 
to be reincarnated at death and thus continue some form of a 
personal existence. 

(3.) Buddhism. This religion appeared in India in the fifth 
century B. C. The founder was Buddha, a member of the 
family of Guatamas. Prior to the formulation of his system 
he devoted seven years to the contemplation of human misery. 
From these meditations we can understand the three principles 
of his doctrine: 



i8 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



(a) Misery is the necessary attendant of existence; (b) the 
ground of this misery is the inability to realize desire; (c) 
therefore, desire, the cause of misery, must be destroyed, 
which is only possible by the annihilation of being or the self. 
Stated in modern terms it means that life is not worth living, 
a business that does not pay expenses. Thus it is that India 
developed the most thoroughgoing pessimism, and held up ex- 
istence as an evil. It started from totally wrong premises and 
drew vicious conclusions. This philosophy has influenced many 
minds, especially Schopenhauer, the German philosopher. 
There are modern pessimists who view life from mistaken 
angles and are living in the civilization of India. But India 
has outgrown Buddhism, which has been dead in the land of 
its birth for ten centuries. 

3. 'Art. 

See the chart. The five statements are sufficiently full for 
present purposes. 

It is well at this point to call the reader's attention to one 
distinctive fact of ancient life, a fact especially prominent in 
Roman history. It is the subordination of the individual, the 
individual for the state, not the state for the individual. As 
man develops this is reversed. The onward movement of the 
race gradually brought forward the true conception, i. e., that 
the individaul is the social unit. This growing individualism 
marks the progress of civilization. It is the one thing 
struggling for expression. It appears in the later feudalism. 



In the Reformation it asserts itself, and so on down through 
modern times. 

From this survey of these nations of antiquity we have seen 
the race struggling with its problems and constructing out of 
its ruling ideas great systems. We have noticed that some of 
these conceptions belong to the whole race and not simply to 
antiquity, and our future studies will show that the great moral 
struggle continues, having the same fundamental basis and only 
assuming a different form. Struggling into new developments 
man carries the essential constituents of his nature seeking 
their larger and truer interpretation. The study of history is 
the study of these struggles in which the doubt that often 
assails the mind is but faith battling with its difficulties. 

One statement suffices to distinguish ancient history, and the 
student should carefully note it and hold it in mind as we pass 
through this great period: Ancient history is the record of 
the struggle toward universal unity in thought, politics and 
religion. 

Topics for Study. 

For the history of India, Mills' History of India, Duncker's 
History of Antiquity and Lenormant's Manual of the Ancient 
History of the East are recommended. On Oriental History 
such works should be consulted as Rawlinson's Five Great 
Monarchies; Sayce's Ancient Empires, and History of Egypt 
Under the Pharaohs, by Brugsch-Bey. 

1. Facts and legends of the early history of India. Man- 
ning's Ancient and Medieval India. 



ANCIENT ERA. 



19 



2. Ancient Ballads and Legends of Hindustan, by Toru Dutt, 
a Hindu woman. 

3. Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies, by Jean An- 
toine Dubois. 

4. Ancient Indian Architecture. Cave Temples of India, by 
Fergusson & Burgess. History of All Nations, Vol. II, 
3i4-3 2 9- 



5. Sanskrit Literature. Max Miiller's History of Sanskrit 
Literature. History of All Nations, Vol. II, 301, 302. 

6. The Veda — the Bible of India. The Beliefs of Mankind, 
pp. 153-170. History of All Nations, Vol. II, 296-304, 309. 

7. The Brahminical System. The Religions of India, by 
Barth. History of All Nations, Vol. II, 308, 310, 311, 323, 328. 

8. Buddha and Buddhism. The Beliefs of Mankind, pp. 
171-185. History of All Nations, Vol. II, 305-315. 



ffCations of the Suphrates {Region 



Ghaldea 



*>h*L u 

1. {first empire of this region. 
2. Turanian (tccadians first inhabitants. 
3. Galled $abylonia after (Assyrian bondage. 
^{Maintained their independence. 
S.t&ettled in the north and founded (Assyria. 
Q. {Religion. Grounded in the old Ctccadian 
system. Ctnu,god of the sky, chief deity. 

(tssyria 

1. {figlath-Pileser 1,1130. Sreat conqueror. 







2.cJiglath-Pileser II. {fyria&.$abylon taken. 
S.(tssur-nazi-pal 111,883-858. Palaces, temples, 
rientalism Sobylon 



(Did Smpire 
1 . {fa rgo n . (Pgade his capital. 3800 . 
2.3iammurabi, 2250. {founder of the old em^ 

pire. diis Gode of jQaws discovered Q.1D. 

1902 sets forth his statesmanship. 
3.6enturies of peace after Siammurabi. 
4.{Jhe fKassiies a Ghaldean dynasty, 1700. 

{New Smpire 
\,{JVabopolassar, 625. (t Ghaldean. 
2.ffCebuchadnezzar, 605-562. Greatest 

$abylonian king. 
S.tJYabonidas and $elshazzar, 562-538. 

{fall of Sobylon under Gyrus, 538. 
{Religion. {guilders of temples. 
j Ciferature. C tccount of Greaiion, etc. 



4.tfhalmaneser II, 858-825. 
b.&iglath-Pileser 111,745-27. 3iis new system. 
6.efargon,722-OS. Gaptivily of {fsrael,722. 
7.eyennacherib,705-681. {fiege of Jerusalem. 
8. Sssarhaddon, 680-68. 8gypt&.tfyria restored. 
Q.efardanapalus, 668-25. 3 he great period of 
Ctssyrian art. {Reared magnificent palaces. 
lO.cfall of (Tssyria by {Medes and ?Wstan*,606 
Ctrt. Pictorial. describing events, inferior 

to Sobylonians in art and literature. 
{Religion, {fhe system the same as the Baby- 



lonian, but the (Assyrians were less religious. 

o {Medo-Persia 

Universal ompires 



{Media 
Persia 




Gyax-ares, founder of monarchy 633. 
(tstyages, grandfather of Gyrus. 



{fcience. {Division of time into months,days. 

(■y'hurt 2 



1. Gyrus, 558-29. Sxlension of the empire. 
2.Gambyses, 529-22. Gonquered Sgypt. 
S.tDarius, 522-486. Srecian war. rfndia. 
4.Xerxes, 486-65. {fhermopylae, {falamis. 
p.(Darius III. {Jhe last king. 

{Government, t fustem of satrapy. 
cQibertyin laws, customs, religion. 
Sducation. tJhe one nation of this group 



having a national educational system. 
{Religion. $ased on the Send Ctvesia. 



Soroasler the founder. 
Ctrl, {their architecture famous for sim- 



plicity and regularity. 



NATIONS OF THE EUPHRATES REGION 



Great interest attaches to the region in which began the 
struggle for world-wide dominion and in which it was first 
accomplished. It marks an enlargement in human ideas and 
activities and is the beginning of a movement by which the 
race is to pass under certain types, or by which it is to see 
itself exhibited at its best in three respects. These far-reaching 
influences, beginning in Orientalism and culminating in Roman 
Imperialism, were calculated to leave their stamp upon all 
future civilizations and at the same time to teach the world 
one of its profoundest truths. 

In the Biblical account of the race following the flood the 
descendants of the sons of Noah find themselves in the plain 
of Shinar. Here was attempted the first political organization 
by the Hamitic, Japhetic and Shemitic races. Seth had been 
divinely selected from the Adamic family in distinction from 
the Cainites. Noah was of the line of Seth, and of his three 
sons the seal of divine selection was laid upon Shem, who be- 
came the ancestor of the Semitic peoples. This providential 
procedure will be set forth at length in our study of the 
Hebrews. The races of Ham and Japheth, following the in- 
cident at Babel, scatter to the south and west, thus breaking 
up the political organization in the valley of the Euphrates, 
and leaving the Shemites in the east. 

Thus these nations of the Tigris and Euphrates form a 
group, were kindred people and had a common civilization. 



The region which is now under the rule of Turkey and Persia 
was, in these early days of history, the seat of mighty empires. 
It is described by the word Orientalism, hence its significance 
in the design of Chart 2. As in the previous studies our aim 
is to aid the student to follow the course of history and to 
discover the conditions underlying these developments, note the 
manner in which these civilizations became inter-related and 
their contributions to future times. 

Chaldea. 

The richness of soil of this entire region drew to it a dense 
population. The conditions of existence led these masses to 
follow the line of least resistance and to settle these districts. 
Chaldea was situated in the lower part of Babylonia, and con- 
sequently the names Chaldean and Babylonian were used 
interchangeably. 

This became the first great empire of this region, and while 
it holds for us an independent interest, the point of peculiar 
importance is its relation to the other great states. Maintain- 
ing their independence they became established in the north 
and founded Assyria. Thus one great empire grew out of 
another. Of similar importance is the fact that Nabopolassar, 
the founder of the New Babylonian Empire and father of 
Nebuchadnezzar, was a Chaldean. 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



Questions. 






Who were probably the first inhabitants? 
When did it receive the name Babylonia? 

3. For how long a time was it under Assyrian bondage? 

4. What language did the Chaldean closely resemble? 

5. Their religion grounded in the Accadian System, what 
were some of the chief features of that system? 

Assyria. 

We have already seen how this Semitic race came into ex- 
istence. It brought forth the first great civilization of this 
region and was destined to exert a mighty influence for cen- 
turies and to come into special relations with other states, such 
as Egypt, Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine and Babylon. The deeds 
of her kings are preserved on bricks, cylinders, and obelisks 
showing such achievements as the conquest of forty-two 
countries by one king, the conquest of Syria, Phoenicia and 
Palestine, the new political system that was created, the con- 
quests in Central Arabia and other great deeds. 

The distinction of Assyria lay in her conquests rather than 
in culture. Devoted from the beginning to war and pillage 
their monuments exhibit the cruelty and brutality to which 
they subjected their enemies. They developed an interest in 
trade, and the excavations in Nineveh reveal something of 
their building operations. 

It is believed that the Assyrian culture came from Babylon, 
but the creative power in literature that belonged to the latter 



was wanting in the Assyrians. They lacked in the sense of 
beauty and their art was but a pictorial representation of 
events. Their religion was essentially the same as the Baby- 
lonian, Asshur being the tutelary deity, Astarte, corresponding 
to Ishtar of the Babylonian, and Bel having equal significance 
with both nations. 

We trace the development of Assyria from the time of their 
supremacy over Babylonia, 1270 B. C, to the fall of Assyria 
in 606, when Nineveh was taken and destroyed by the Medes 
and Babylonians. Cyaxares the Median entered into an 
alliance with Nabopolassar and a treaty was made with Lydia. 
Then began the struggle that should decide the fate of As- 
syria. It ended with the fall of Nineveh and the division of 
Assyria by the Tigris between the Medes and Babylonians. 

It will be seen that the fall of Assyria antedated that of 
Egypt by nearly three centuries, and about 116 years after she 
put an end to Israel and carried the ten tribes into captivity. 
It leaves two other great nations of this group to continue the 
struggle, to subdue empires, bring forth their civilization and 
raise Orientalism to its greatest height and leave one domi- 
nant fact in the historic development of the race. The follow- 
ing questions will bring forward the important events of this 
empire : 

Questions. 

1. What does Semitic signify? 

2. What king conquered 42 countries and extended the 
empire to the Mediterranean ? 



ANCIENT ERA. 



23 



3. How far did Assurnazirpal III extend the empire and 
what building interests distinguished this reign? 

4. How did Tiglath-Pileser III restore Assyrian power? 
What was his new political system? 

5. By what king were the Ten Tribes of Israel taken into 
captivity? What was the capital of Israel? 

6. What king came into conflict with Judah in 701, and 
what happened to his army? (See Isa. xxxvi-xxxix. ) 

7. Why did Sennacherib destroy Babylon? 

8. What were the conquests of Essarhaddon? 

9. Who was the last great King of Assyria and upon what 
did his fame mainly rest? 

Topics for Study. 

1. Language of Assyrians, History of All Nations, Vol. I, 
pp. 152-155. 

2. Canals and aqueducts constructed by Sennacherib. 

3. Cities and ruins of Assyria, History of All Nations, Vol. 

I, 325- 

4. History and ruins of Nineveh, History of All Nations, 
Vol. 1, 147, 325; II, 88-94. 

5. Assyrian Art, History of All Nations, Vol. II, 86. 

6. Palaces and Temples of Assurnazirpal, History of All 
Nations, Vol. 1, 324-346; II, 68, 69, 90. 

7. The Assyrian art of gem-cutting. 

8. Study of Byron's Destruction of Sennacherib's Army. 

9. Study of Sardanapalus, the hero of Byron's tragedy. 



BABYLON. 

When this great state passed from the stage of action the 
race had come to a new development. It is only as we look 
back over the ages that have rolled away and follow the order 
of civilizations that we can see the significance of Babylon in 
its relation to the world. And this is that deeper meaning of 
history, i. e., to see the relation of the parts to the whole, to 
grasp and place the units in the universal, and to see in what 
manner every contribution must be accounted for in the sum 
total of human development. The part played by every state 
is very much like the incidents, circumstances, forces of an 
individual life that carry it on to maturity. We may have 
forgotten many of these, but while they have fallen out of 
memory they have not fallen out of the life. They live in the 
present, though forgotten by it, and are operative whether or 
not they were ever properly understood. One may be ignorant 
of Babylon, Greece and Rome, but that does not alter the fact 
that these mighty forces are a part of our life, and that 
ignorance of them does not render their power and influence 
abortive. 

While Assyria was proceeding to the acme of her greatness, 
Babylon was advancing to hers, carrying the race a step further. 
It is left for her and Medo-Persia to accomplish all that was 
possible for Orientalism to do, and to leave the race in its 
earlier stages to contemplate what was presented as the one 
great end of life. As we study these states this dominant idea 
will appear. And the intelligent study of history is the appre- 
hension of the ideas that have influenced civilization. 



24 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



The Old Empire. 

1. Sargon established his capital at Agade about 3800 B. C. 
Under the patronage of this law-giver and conqueror Baby- 
lonian culture was extended to the Mediterranean. Between 
the period of Sargon and the founding of the first Babylonian 
Empire the Elamites were a source of great trouble. About 
2286 B. C. they captured the southern cities of Babylonia 
while about the same time the city of Babylon was seized by 
Arabian kings. Under the Cossaean kings the state declined 
while Assyria increased in strength. 

2. Hammurabi was the founder of the first Babylonian Em- 
pire about 2250 B. C. Since the discovery of his code of law 
much information has come to us regarding his abilities and 
statesmanship. The finding of this code is one of the most 
important discoveries, in archaeological research. It was dis- 
covered in 1902 A. D. and "is so important that the whole 
history of early law will have to be re-written. The inscription 
is the longest Babylonian record ever discovered." From the 
first part of the inscription we learn much concerning public 
works then in existence as also historical facts of that time. 
The code sets forth in great detail the laws regulating the con- 
duct of the people and the penalties imposed for various de- 
fections. The commercial laws are of special interest both as 
distinguishing an unusual system and as indicating the com- 
mercial activity of the Babylonians. One of the most interest- 
ing and highly important features of the code is the striking 
agreement between it and the Law of the Covenant and Deu- 
teronomic code of the Hebrews. And this is the more inter- 



esting when we remember that it antedates the Pentateuch by 
many centuries. 

3. Following the reign of this brilliant statesman Babylon 
enjoyed a long period of prosperity. During the period of the 
Kassites, a Chaldean dynasty which arose about 1700 B. C, the 
state greatly developed. It was during this period that the 
city of Assur revolted, gained its independence by a war and 
established the kingdom of Assyria. The latter state grew to 
power while Babylon greatly declined. 

4. Early Babylonian culture. 

In mathematics and astronomy the Babylonians were much 
in advance of the Egyptians. They divided time into months, 
days and minutes. Their invention of weights and measures 
was carried to other nations. They invented the potter's 
wheel, engraved gems, and manufactured fabrics. 

In literature, among other productions may be noted the 
"Legend of Sargon," "Ishtar's Descent Into Hades," "Story of 
the Flood," that resembles so strikingly the Biblical account, 
and "Penitential Psalms." 

The Babylonians exhibited a greater religious interest than 
the Assyrians. While the latter built palaces the former 
reared temples. 

The New Empire. 

1. Founding of the New Empire. 

We have already noted, in our study of Assyria, the alliance 
which Cyaxares formed with Nabopolassar against Assyria. 
When that empire fell in 625 B. C, the spoils that fell to 



ANCIENT ERA. 



25 



Nabopolassar was the whole of Babylonia. Under him the 
New Empire was founded. 

2. His son, Nebuchadnezzar, was the most distinguished 
Babylonian monarch. He enlarged Babylon, adorned and 
beautified it until it surpassed all ancient cities. Its walls were 
forty miles in circumference and contained 100 gates and 250 
towers. He built the great palace with its "hanging gardens," 
connected the Euphrates and the Tigris and constructed re- 
markable water-works. The "Hanging Gardens," one of the 
world's great wonders, constructed on high arches, story above 
story, flourished with flowers, shrubs and trees. 

3. The First Universal Empire.. 

During his reign of forty-three years, one-half of the whole 
period of the New Empire, Nebuchadnezzar caused the power 
of Babylon to be felt throughout the nations. Captives in 
great numbers were brought to the capital, and the king set 
up his image as a god to be worshipped. The state abounded 
with wealth and luxury. Grandeur and magnificence assumed 
the greatest forms. 

Under the last two kings, Nabonidas and Belshazzar, the 
administrative system declined. The very grandeur and luxury 
of the state ate into its vitals. Herodotus, as also Daniel, tell 
us that it was in the midst of revelry and debauch that the 
city fell into the hands of Cyrus, after an existence of less 
than 90 years. 

The Material Type. 

Orientalism was the representative of materialism. It ex- 
hausted the race in its lowest plane. It was the beginning of 



those great representations of man in which by great univer- 
sal states he should be exhibited to himself in the dominant 
interests of his being. In Babylon he reaches his greatest 
material conceptions. Material grandeur, wealth, power, is the 
dominant idea and the highest good. If this constituted the 
climax, the glory of life, the ideal of existence and the goal of 
human aspiration, then Babylon and Medo-Persia have for all 
time solved the problem of life. They exhibited man at his 
best in this ancient period in the material plane, and it re- 
mains for the future to show whether there is anything higher 
or better. It is significant, however, that this mighty state 
that has carried the race forward to this representation of it- 
self could not survive its ideal. In the midst of its unparalleled 
grandeur it fell into a heap of ruins. 

Every nation has had a mission, has contributed something 
to human development, has uttered some message, some word 
of truth. But in a peculiar sense the four great universal em- 
pires stand out in human history. They are the bearers of a 
special announcement, set apart as it were for unusual ends. 
No other states of the ancient world are so distinguished. 
Through these moulds humanity passed and received an im- 
press. By them the world was successively gathered together 
and passed on from the one to the other, each great civiliza- 
tion unfolding a new type of our human character and consti- 
tution. This fact is especially distinguished in the sacred 
Scriptures. The Prophecy of Daniel sets forth the world- 
order in these Universal Empires in the midst of the first of 
which he lived as a Hebrew captive. His vision of the His- 



26 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



toric Man is not only striking but historically true in every 
detail. He described Babylon as the head of gold. He sets 
forth the relation of these great states to each other and to 
the world at large, and the significance attached to them as 
to no other states is what the historian is compelled to recog- 
nize, whether he cares anything about the Scriptural presenta- 
tion or not. 

One of the most important things in the mission of Babylon 
was her relation to the Hebrew race. The prophecies of the 
Babylonian Captivity announced by Isaiah and Jeremiah were 
fulfilled to the letter including the matter of its duration. It 
was idolatry that sent them into captivity, and it was the 
captivity that effectually cured them of idolatry. So that after 
passing out of Babylon the Jew was fitted to accomplish his 
own great mission of disseminating a monotheistic religion and 
in due time bring forth the greatest force in human thought 
and civilization — the advent of Jesus Christ. 

What is of special interest to us at this point is to keep be- 
fore the mind the place and power of Babylon in the world's 
development — the representative of the material order. The 
race must begin its great ascent in the lower plane and upon 
this rung of the ladder Babylon placed our feet. And we 
shall rest there until advanced by the next great movement 
representative of a higher order. 

Questions. 

I. What was the state of Egyptian civilization when Sargon 
ruled Babylon? (See charts.) 



2. Under what conditions was Assyria founded? 

3. Who were the Elamites? 

4. From whom did Nebuchadnezzar wrest Syria? 

5. When did he first capture Jerusalem? 

6. Whom did he place on the throne of Judah, and what 
alliance did that king make and with what result? 

7. What is the date of the second capture of Jerusalem ? 

8. When did Tyre fall into the hands of Babylon? 

9. When and by whom did Babylon fall, and how does this 
date correspond with the 70 years' captivity of the Jews ? 

Topics for Study. 

1. The Hammurabi Code. Records of the Past. History 
of All Nations, Vol. I, 196-198. 

2. City of Babylon — Walls, Palaces, etc. History of All 
Nations, Vol. II, 128-132. Budge's Babylonian Life and His- 
tory. 

3. Ancient Remains of Babylonia, History of All Nations, 
Vol. I, 161-182. 

4. Destruction of Jerusalem. 

5. The Story of Babylon and Nebuchadnezzar as given by 
Daniel. 

6. Ishtar's Descent Into Hades. Records of the Past; His- 
tory of All Nations, Vol. I, 183-188. 

7. Babylonian Conception of a Future Life, History of All 
Nations. Vol. I, 188. 

8. Study of the Flood Story, noting coincidences with that 



ANCIENT ERA. 



27 



in Genesis. History of All Nations, Vol. I, it 
the Past. 

Medo-Persia. 



Records of 



With the second great universal empire Orientalism com- 
pletes its task, having brought forth two of the four great 
states. Brought into conflict with the third great state we 
shall watch with interest the passing from the lower to the 
higher conception and ideal. 

Media. 

The country of the Medes lay in the western part of the 
plateau of Iran, while on the southern border lay the territory 
of the Persians. Both sprang from the Aryan family and had 
come from the region of the Oxus. For a time the Medes had 
a national existence apart from the Persians, but little dis- 
tinction attached to it. 

Questions. 

1. Who was the founder of the Median Monarchy, what 
was his greatest accomplishment and what did he add to his 
dominions? 

2. By what kindred ties through Astyages was Media 
bound to Persia? 

3. What was the relation of Cyrus to Astyages and what 
was the plot of the latter concerning him? In what way did 
Cyrus escape? 



4. How was Cyrus assisted in securing the Median king- 
dom, and when did he become King of Medes and Persians? 

Persia. 

1. Extension of the Empire. 

From the beginning of the reign of Cyrus, 558 B. C, to the 
Conquest of Persia by Alexander, 331 B. C, was a period of 
227 years. The Medes and Persians, it will be noted, became 
one state under Cyrus just twenty years prior to the fall of 
Babylon by Cyrus. 

Under that king the Empire was extended from the Indus 
to the iEgean, and from the Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulf. 
"The character of Cyrus shines in the darkness of Oriental 
history as that of a magnanimous king, a generous enemy, a 
kindly man." 

His son Cambyses reigned but seven years. He lacked the 
sterling qualities and noble manhood of his father. Incapable 
of bearing the failure of an expedition into Ethiopia he com- 
mitted suicide. He had conquered Egypt. 

No direct heirs to the throne were left by Cambyses, and 
Darius succeeded, being of royal blood. It was his ambition 
to exceed his predecessors in the extension of his already vast 
empire. His first step was to establish a new system, giving 
the government a firmer basis. The empire was divided into 
twenty provinces, each province ruled by a satrap, who were 
required to pay tribute. 

Into his hands fell India, Thrace and Macedonia. In his 



28 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



conflict with the Athenians his large army met with a crushing 
defeat, and .before Darius could recover the loss by the vast 
preparations he instituted he died. 

2. Conflict with the Greeks. 

This will be taken up more particularly in connection with 
Grecian history. During the reign of Xerxes I the battles of 
Thermopylae, Salamis and Plataea were fought, the first only 
being won by the Persians. Xerxes has been supposed to be 
the Ahasuerus of the book of Esther. There are good grounds 
for this supposition. 

Darius III was the last Persian King. The vast empire was 
overthrown by Alexander the Great in 331 B. C, at the battle 
of Arbela. 

For nearly 500 years the Parthians, who conquered Alex- 
ander's successors, maintained a dynasty. This began 248 B. 
C., and in 226 A. D. the throne was seized by a pretender and 
a dynasty founded which lasted until 632 A. D. 

3. Rise and Fall of the Second Universal Empire. 

This vast empire lasted for 200 years after the fall of Baby- 
lon or a little more than twice as long as the first universal 
empire. In the Prophecy of Daniel it is represented in the 
Historic Man as the arms and breast of silver. In that vision 
both its rise and fall are predicted and described and history 
vindicated the prophecy in due time. 

The fundamental idea of Babylon was carried out still fur- 
ther by Persia. These states never rose above that materialism 
of which Orientalism was representative. For this exhibition 
of the race in this lower plane the world was conquered and 



brought to the feet of these mighty states. The movement 
began with the lower and for its fullest distinction passed 
through a period of 300 years. And as was said in connec- 
tion with Babylon, if this dominant idea were the climax, the 
problem of life, then it found its solution in Orientalism. But 
if not, if man is capable of something higher, if there are 
aspirations and possibilities in human life above this material 
plane they will be struggled for, and for their distinction and 
realization he will construct new empires by which to compel 
his larger self-expression. Already that moment has dawned. 
On the plains of Arbela Persia passed away. She could do no 
more for us than she had done, and it remains to be seen what 
new developments are in store for the race at the hands of her 
conqueror. 

Questions. 

1. Who was the wealthiest man in the time of Cyrus, and 
what relations were established between them? 

2. What Biblical event is associated with Cyrus? 

3. What happened while Cambyses was in Egypt? 

4. In what way did Darius secure the throne? 

5. Was the spy system, introduced by Darius, calculated to 
weaken or increase his power? 

6. Where did Darius build great palaces, and by what 
methods did he secure a rapid transmission of intelligence? 

7. What was the cause of the conflict with Greece that is- 
sued in the Battle of Marathon? Why was Darius and his 
vast army defeated, and what importance attaches to this 
battle ? 



ANCIENT ERA. 



29 



8. How long was the period from the conflict with Greece 
under Darius to the conquest by Alexander? 

9. Did Egypt fall into the hands of Alexander before or 
after the fall of Persia? (See Chart 1.) 



Persian Civilization. 



1. Government. 



It is important to note the advance made by Darius I in 
governmental principles. Oriental monarchies sustained a 
uniform type of government, while, as Rawlinson shows, the 
ruler was the absolute master of the lives and possessions of 
his subjects. What was attempted in the way of checking this 
absoluteness and despotism availed but little. Instead of per- 
mitting kings of conquered countries to rule their territories, 
as had been the case, Darius placed a Persian satrap over the 
province whose authority was supported by Persian soldiers 
stationed in each province. The king protected himself 
against the plots of satraps and also kept them within limita- 
tions by a system established in each satrapy. Yet it was 
by this very system of satrapy that the disintegration of the 
empire was hastened when the successors of Darius were ren- 
dered effeminate by polygamy, and inspections of the provinces 
gradually ceased. 

2. Education. 

Special attention was given to the education of Persian 
youth which began at the age of five and continued to the age 



of twenty. Persia alone of this group of states sustained a 
national educational system. By a most vigorous system the 
boy was trained to great endurance, to master hardships and 
support himself under limited conditions. Fundamental in his 
moral training was absolute regard for the truth. "So effec- 
tive was this teaching that the Persians would not engage in 
trade, because in their opinion it would necessitate untruth- 
fulness." 

3. Religion. 

The Zend Avesta was the basis of their religion. It has 
been supposed that a certain similarity between the Persian 
and Jewish systems was responsible for the generous attitude" 
of the Persians to that race. But other conquerors, especially 
Alexander, displayed a like attitude and encouraged them to 
locate in certain centers because of the assistance they rendered 
in colonization. 

Zoroaster, a Median King, was the founder of the Persian 
religion. The god of light stands opposed to the god of dark- 
ness, while "the conflict of virtue and vice in man is a contest 
for control on the part of these antagonistic powers. In order 
to keep off the evil spirits one must avoid what is morally or 
ceremonially unclean." The things especially emphasized by 
the Zoroastrian system were purity, piety, truth and industry. 

For many centuries Mohammedan persecution has scattered 
the adherents of this system. They are called Parsees and 
number about 100,000, the great majority of them living in 
India. 



30 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



4. Art. 

The Persians contributed nothing to Science, but became 
famous in architecture, the finest example of which was the 
Great Palace at Persepolis, destroyed by Alexander. The re- 
mains that still exist are among the most remarkable of ancient 
constructions in this section of the world. Three things dis- 
tinguish Persian architecture: first, the attention given to 
proportion, simplicity and regularity ; second, the filling of the 
halls with magnificent pillars ; and third, the approach to their 
great buildings by great staircases. Artistic talent in any 
high degree was not among their accomplishments. They 
were soldiers and fitted to rule, but not an intellectual people. 
Their distinction is not to be sought in this realm. 

The Chart. 

As we close our studies relative to this group of nations it 
will be well to see them as they are related in the chart. To 
begin with note the manner in which they are exhibited under 
the term Orientalism. Review the beginnings of these em- 
pires and follow the historic stream and the developments in 
each state. Observe especially the rise of Universal Empires 
and the great central fact as indicated by the circle. 

The second great empire representative of this dominant 



fact of Orientalism has fallen under the mighty hand of an- 
other state. Materialism has come into conflict with a new 
force that claims the world. A new aspect of life has evolved 
that declares itself mightier than the mere material order and 
that proposes a new solution of our human problem, and the 
unfolding of a. greater being than had yet been discovered. It 
is now for Greece to establish these high claims. 

Topics for Study. 

1. Cyrus and restoration of the Jews. The Book of Ezra. 
See also Isaiah xliv. 

2. System of Government Under Darius. Rawlinson's Five 
Great Monarchies; History of All Nations, Vol. II, 176, 177. 

3. Persepolis, Its Palaces, Inscriptions, Tombs, Ruins, etc. 
History of All Nations, Vol. II, 177-254. 

4. The Jews in the Persian State as set forth in the Book of 
Esther. 

5. Persian Art. History of All Nations, Vol. II, 160, 186- 
206; Wheeler's Alexander the Great, pp. 187-207. 

6. Zoroaster and the Persian Religion. Fisher's Outlines of 
Universal History, pp. 64-66 ; Beliefs of Mankind; History of 
All Nations, Vol. II, 247-272. 

7. Decisive Battles — Thermopylae, Marathon, Salamis. 



{Hebrews and Phoenicians 



&rnm (Abraham 1921 to 70 QM 



Phoenicia 2800-64 &£ 



{From (Abraham to (he Sxodus. 1491. 
tfacob and sons, in Sgypi, {Moses. 

jjrsm Sxndus io efl/onarcAi/. 1491-1095. 
Wilderness, Gonquest of Palestine by 
Joshua, Period of the fudges. 

&rnm tfavl in ,Tiisrunlion. 109B-97g. 
tfaul,*David Jerusalem the capital, 
efolomon the {temple. Phoenician aid. 

Strom {Disruption io {tCehemiah. 975-448. 



tfsrael 19 kings 9 dynasties. Gaptivity 

by (Assyrians 722. 
tfudah 19 kings one dynasty. {Babylonian 
Gaptivity &86.{%estoraiion by Gyrus 536. 
f7rnm {Nehemiah to (A.,7). 70. 
Palestine under Persians to 333, (Alexander 
333-323, Ptolemies 323-204, tfyrian kings 
204-165, ^Maccabees 165-63, {Romans to 
destruction of Jerusalem 70 (?.<£)• 

Givilization 

literature 



Strom ^eitlemeni.SSOO io 900 .ff.fe 
sfidon's supremacy until 1080. 
{lyre's supremacy fori centuries, 
{the alphabet perfected, 
independent development,1100-900. 
Under (Assyria and {Babulon. 900-839. 
(Assur-nazir-pal, (Assyrian extension, 
tfidon destroyed 678. 

Babylonian control 572. (Assyria fell 625. 
incorporation into Persian Smpire 539. 
Qfter the fall of Babylon by Gyrus. 
(Alexander's Gonauest 332. Sndof3Yation. l 64 
€fiege of {tyre ended by Ctlexander, 
Gonquered by Ptolemy, 
tfyria gained control, 197. 
(A {Roman province in 64. 



{Jemple 



1. 0/«? {testament, 39 books. 
2.(Apocrypha,14 books. 
a.{/almud. {fwo parts, {Mishna and &emara. 
Education 



1. Primary. {Home instruction. 

2.{ftigher education, efchools of theProphets. 

{/aught philosophy, history, poet ry, law. 
Schools of the {Rabbis. Sn (Alexandria, 

Babylon, Jerusalem. 

Ghart 3 



Gommerce and industry _ 
1. jQeading ancient maritime people. 
2.t&mported tin, precious metals, pearls. 
3.{Made ships for the great nations. 
4.Goniributed to tfblomon's {temple. 
Golonizaiion 

dPupply stations developed into colonies and 
trade center s-Utic a, tffippo, Garthage, etc. 
Enterprises 

1. (Stem-cutting, dyeing, pottery work. 

2. (Constructed a phonetic alphabet which be- 
came the basis of modern alphabets. 



HEBREWS AND PHOENICIANS 



Palestine is one of the smallest countries in the world. In- 
cluding the section east of the Jordan, it comprises about ten 
thousand square miles, and in size is about the same as Mary- 
land or Massachusetts. It was hidden away, as it were, from 
the rest of the world waiting for the nation that should occupy 
it to bring forth in this isolated spot a civilization that should 
influence and mould the thought of humanity as no other 
has done. A glance at this small strip of land brings before us 
two vital facts — its isolation and centralization. And these 
two facts are to have a profound significance relative to the 
nation that is to inherit this land. From the physical features 
of its isolation we would say that this country was designed 
for a people who should be protected from neighbors, a pro- 
vision designed for peculiar ends as to their national mission. 
Protected by the sea on the west, the deserts on the south and 
east and mountains on the north, the inhabitants would be cut 
off from neighbors and live in such isolation as would afford 
them a special opportunity of maintaining and developing, 
without the hindrances of intercourse with other peoples, the 
thing that is to be committed to their hands. There is perhaps 
no other spot in all the world more effectually isolated, and this 
geographical situation must never be lost sight of in the con- 
sideration of the Hebrew nation. Among polytheistic nations 
this race is selected to bring forth and develop a monotheistic 
religion, claiming to be divinely communicated and bearing a 



message of redemption to the whole world. To keep this peo- 
ple free from intermixture with the idolatrous races about them 
they are placed in this geographical isolation, in a fruitful land 
abundantly capable of supplying their needs, to accomplish the 
end for which they were chosen. 

It is a remarkable fact that no other race has been so com- 
pletely identified with a distinguishing end or purpose as has 
the Hebrew nation. In every feature and phase of the life 
of this race is the one fact of their being divinely chosen as 
the bearers of a special message to humanity, and all things are 
brought under contribution to this end. The same cannot be 
said of the Egyptians, Babylonians, Greeks or Romans re- 
garding their distinctive interest and civilization. Thus in the 
study of this people there is something altogether unusual and 
different, and this is emphasized by the unusual manner in 
which he has left the impress of his personality and civiliza- 
tion upon the world. 

Two facts impressed us regarding Palestine. We have 
noted that of its isolation ; the other is its centralization. While 
protected from neighbors this nation is not to be excluded from 
the great world, the great civilizations and influences about 
it. No other nation could be more centrally situated with 
reference to the dominant forces of ancient life. It is only 
necessary to glance over the map of ancient times to see the 
relation of this little spot to Babylonia, Persia, Assyria, Egypt, 



33 



34 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



Greece, and Rome. Into vital contact with these races Pales- 
tine is to be brought. From Babylon the head of the nation is 
to proceed. In Egypt the nation is to come to its growth suffi- 
ciently strong to conquer their land and establish themselves 
in their inheritance. Assyria is to scatter the ten tribes among 
the nations. Babylon is to be the instrument in rescuing Judah 
from idolatry, never again to forsake her monotheism. Persia 
is to restore captive Judah and thus pave the way for the times 
of the Messiah. Greece is to furnish the new tongue for the 
Old Testament Scriptures, the Septuagint, by which they 
should be carried to the whole Greek-speaking world. Rome, 
in her world-wide conquests, shall cast up the highways for 
the Jew scattered throughout the empire and sowing the seed 
of his religion. Thus every great force of the ancient world is 
brought into requisition for the development and consumma- 
tion of the Jewish mission and message to humanity. Isolated 
in Palestine and Jewishly individualistic, and exclusive, yet 
how central to the great world about it, and what universal 
elements enter into this religious civilization. The very thing 
designed in its peculiar exclusiveness was not that it should re- 
main so, but that it should become universal. From an ex- 
clusive Judaism Christianity was to appear as naturally as the 
flower breaks forth from the bud. 

The two things to note in the consideration of any state are, 
what did it specifically accomplish, what things are clearly de- 
fined in its development and in what manner and degree has 
it left an abiding influence upon the world and contributed to 
the sum-total of human advancement. The intermingling of 



states results in a new combination by the mixture of their rul- 
ing ideas in much the same way as water is the new result from 
the proportionate combination of two kinds of air. It is for us 
in the study of history to note these combinations and see how 
their fusion produces the new historic results. What was 
brought forth in Palestine is fusing with the thought of the 
world, and at this moment is profoundly operative in the deep- 
est interests of our race. Its one great announcement is the 
surrender of the race to its claims, and to this end its institu- 
tions, social, religious and educational, are established. Thus 
the importance of an intelligent understanding of the people 
and sources of what at this hour have such a claim upon our 
attention. 

Hebrew History and Civilization. 

The history of this people falls into five periods. 

/. From Abraham to the Exodus. 

Abraham was a native of Ur of the Chaldees, an important 
city about 150 miles below Babylon. In Genesis we have the 
account of his being divinely called from Chaldea to Palestine 
to become the head of the Hebrew nation, and was given the 
land for his inheritance and that of his seed. Usher places 
this call at about 1921 B. C. By comparing this date with those 
of the two preceding charts the student will see what were the 
contemporaneous events in the other great nations, especially 
Babylon and Egypt. 

For the history of this race the main source is the Old Testa- 
ment. There a special line is distinguished leading from Seth 



ANCIENT ERA. 



35 



to the Messiah and known as the Messianic Line. Seth, the 
head of this line, was the third son of Adam. Noah is of 
this line, and after the flood became in his family the new head 
of the race. Of his three sons Shem is chosen as the new 
head of the line, the progenitor of the Shemitic races to which 
belonged the Chaldeans. From this race Abraham is selected, 
and the line comes to the particular distinction in the Messianic 
nation, and from this becomes more and more particularized. 

Isaac, the son of Abraham, inherits the covenant promises, 
and of his two sons, Esau and Jacob, the birthright falls to the 
latter. He became the father of twelve sons, the heads of the 
future twelve tribes of Israel. In his last words to his sons 
in Egypt Jacob specifies Judah as the Messianic tribe, which is 
the last of these distinctions in the book of Genesis. In our 
study of Egypt we noted the circumstances of Jacob and his 
family being driven to Egypt by famine after Joseph was made 
prime minister by Pharaoh, and also the significance of this 
event. It was a wise provision that took the patriarchal family 
from Palestine, separated from the idolatrous peoples of the 
land, and giving them the opportunity under the most favor- 
able conditions to grow up into a strong nation. They would 
then be able to enter the land of their inheritance, conquer it 
and become established in their national life. 

We have also noticed in our study of the Hyksos kings how, 
upon their expulsion, the Hebrews were subjected to bitter per- 
secution, which would be calculated to render less difficult the 
task of inducing them to leave their happy lot in Egypt and 
return to the land of their forefathers. 



Moses is commissioned to rescue his burdened people, and 
the Exodus marks a new epoch in their history. The date of 
this event is variously given; in fact, the dates range from 1491 
to 1270 B. C. 

II. From the Exodus to the Monarchy. 
This consists of three periods: 

1, The period of wandering under the leadership of Moses. 

During this period of forty years all that came from Egypt 
perished by the way, and but two entered Palestine — Joshua 
and Caleb. During their stay at Sinai Moses received the 
Ten Commandments and other laws relative to the judicial and 
religious government of the people. The tabernacle was set 
up, the external symbol of Jehovah's presence, and became 
the religious center of the nation until the building of the 
temple by Solomon. 

2. The period of conquest by Joshua. 

The successor of Moses subdued the races occupying the 
land in a series of remarkable campaigns covering a period of 
about thirty years. The Tel Amama Tablets found in Upper 
Egypt in 1887 are of the first importance for the right under- 
standing of the history and geography of Palestine. Of special 
interest is the letter from Jerusalem to the king of Egypt by 
Adonizedek, the name of the king of Jerusalem slain by 
Joshua (Josh. x. 3), and is a remarkable confirmation of the 
Biblical records. Following the conquest the tribes received 



36 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



their inheritance, the tabernacle was set up in Shiloh and their 
national life begins under those special appointments and insti- 
tutions already communicated to them. 

3. The period of the Judges — about 300 years. 

During the period of conquest idolatry was not wholly des- 
troyed. Lapsing into idolatry, according to the Book of Judges, 
was the occasion of severe oppressions by the surrounding 
nations, especially the Mesopotamians, Moabites, Canaanites, 
Midianites, Ammonites and Philistines. To relieve the people 
from these oppressions, judges were raised up, the last of 
which was Samuel, one of the grandest characters in Jewish 
history. 

Up to this time Israel had been a theocracy, under the sov- 
ereignty of Jehovah, but now, during the last years of Samuel, 
they demand a king. The demand was granted and the mon- 
archy established. 

III. The Monarchy. From Saul to the Disruption. 

1. Saul, Israel's first king, reigned for forty years. 

He was of the tribe of Benjamin, as was Saul of Tarsus, who 
became the Apostle Paul of New Testament history. He was 
more of a military chieftain than a king, and conducted seven 
campaigns against the foes of Israel, but was defeated and 
slain at last by the Philistines on Mount Gilboa. 



2. The reign of David. 

In his Shiloh prophecy (Gen. xlix. 10) Jacob specified Judah 
as the royal tribe. In David we come to a new distinction in 
the Messianic line. The tribal had already been indicated, and 
now the particular family, the royal family of David, is chosen. 
He ruled for forty years, having been anointed by Samuel 
during the kingship of Saul. At first he reigned over Judah 
alone, but upon the union of the two houses David removed 
his capital to Jerusalem, which he took from the Jebusites. 
This brought Israel to national centralization, a most impor- 
tant step in their development. Under David the nation came 
to rest, her enemies being crushed and the kingdom firmly 
established. 

3. The reign of Solomon, another reign of forty years. 

This reign is known as the palmy days of Israel. Solomon's 
first great achievement was the building of the temple on Mount 
Moriah. Thus the nation came to its religious centralization. 
The priesthood and institutions of the temple service were 
fully organized. Phoenicia contributed largely to this magnifi- 
cent structure both in materials and workmanship. "The mag- 
nificence of the temple was very great, and the gold and other 
precious substances expended in embellishing it almost tran- 
scend belief. According to the most moderate computation, the 
value of the precious metals was £120,000,000 sterling." This 
was a period of peace, expansion and remarkable prosperity. 



ANCIENT ERA. 



The abounding wealth of the kingdom is well described by the 
statement that silver was as stones in Jerusalem. 

IV. From the Disruption to Nehemiah. 

Solomon's reign had brought oppression to the people, and 
Rehoboam refusing to meet the demands of ten of the tribes 
that these oppressions be relieved, and declaring that the con- 
trary would be true, the ten tribes revolted, and thus the king- 
dom was divided into Israel and Judah. 

i. The Kingdom of Israel, 975-722. 

The northern kingdom under Jeroboam established its capital 
first at Shechem and afterwards under Omri at Samaria. 
From the first it fell into the most depraved idolatry, which 
continued practically unchecked to the very close. Prophets 
were raised up to warn the kingdom of the doom that would 
fall upon it in consequence of its rejection of Jehovah, but all 
to no avail. Nineteen kings representing nine dynasties suc- 
ceeded one another, and in the reign of Hoshea, after an inde- 
pendent existence of 253 years, they were carried away into 
captivity by the Assyrians and scattered among the nations. 

2. The Kingdom of Judah, 975-586. 

Nineteen kings succeeded to the throne, representing one con- 
tinuous dynasty — the royal house of David. While this king- 
dom lapsed greatly into idolatry, during three reigns three 
revivals restored its religious vigor and thus saved it for a time 



from the impending doom. The greatest men in the history of 
these kingdoms were the prophets. Their influence in Judah 
was more effective, but idolatry and its attending vices sapped 
its life. The prophecies of the Babylonian captivity by such 
prophets as Isaiah and Jeremiah were unheeded. During the 
reign of Jehoiakim, Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem and 
carried off ten thousand of the people, among whom was Daniel 
the prophet. In the reign of Zedekiah, 586 B. C, he returned, 
destroyed the city and carried the people to Babylon. From 
the time of the first captivity to the restoration under Cyrus for 
seventy years Judah languished in exile, but the crucible burned 
away the dross of her idolatry, never to reappear. 

When Cyrus took Babylon he restored the Jews to Palestine. 
From Nebuchadnezzar's first invasion to the edict of Cyrus 
was seventy years, the length of the captivity declared by the 
prophets. To Zerubbabel, who belonged to the royal family of 
Judah, was committed the first expedition, and upon reaching 
Jerusalem work upon the second temple was begun. Eighty 
years afterwards Ezra conducted from Babylon another com- 
pany of seven thousand people. Finally Nehemiah returned, 
co-operated with Ezra and set the people to work to build 
the wall. 

V. From Nehemiah to the Destruction of Jerusalem. 

I. Palestine under Persians to 333 B. C. 

The story of the Book of Esther falls in this period and 
gives many important suggestions regarding the Jews in the 



38 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



Persian empire. It is generally believed that the Ahasuerus of 
Esther was Xerxes, the Persian king. 

2. Palestine under Alexander, 333-323. 

The Book of Nehemiah closes the history of the Old Testa- 
ment, hence the events which follow the last of his record are 
those that fall in the period between the Old Testament and 
the New. In the battle of Arbela the sceptre of power passed 
from Persia to Alexander. He treated the Jews generously 
and encouraged them to settle in Alexandria and other parts of 
the empire. The wide dispersion of this people thus brought 
them into large contact with the nations, which both exercised 
an influence upon them and placed them in a position to exer- 
cise a peculiar influence upon the world. Being away from 
Jerusalem the sacrificial part of their worship gave way to the 
special study of the sacred books, and by them the expectation 
of the Messiah became widely diffused. 

3. Palestine under the Ptolemies, 323-204. 

At the death of Alexander his empire was divided between 
his four generals, Palestine falling to Ptolemy. It was under 
the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus that the Old Testament was 
translated into the Greek. 

4. Palestine under the Syrian kings, 204-165. 

A dark period opened for the Jews when Antiochus Epi- 
phanes came to the throne. By every means he attempted to 



uproot and destroy the Jewish system, but instead of succeed- 
ing he started a revolt that was to wrest Palestine from Syria. 

5. Palestine under the Maccabees, 165-63. 

The insurrection which originated in this family culminated 
in Judas Maccabaeus becoming governor of Palestine. 

6. Palestine under the Romans. 

The Roman Eagles entered Jerusalem 63 B. C. Hyrcanus 
was raised to kingly dignity by Julius Caesar, while, under 
Antony, Herod was given the same distinction. To gain the 
goodwill of the Jews he built for them a temple, displacing the 
second temple, of surpassing magnificence. Fearful that the 
advent of Christ might mean the loss of his throne, Herod in- 
stituted measures by which the child's death might be secured. 
The Jews frequently came into conflict with the Roman State, 
and in 70 A. D., Titus destroyed Jerusalem and its temple, 
while the people driven from Palestine have been scattered over 
every part of the world. 

VI. Literature. 

1. The Jewish Bible — the Old Testament. 

This comprises 39 books, consisting of the Pentateuch or Ihe 
Law, five books, twelve historical books, five poetical books and 
seventeen prophetical books. The compilation of this sacred 
literature proceeded through a period of nearly fifteen centu- 



ANCIENT ERA. 



39 



ries, and constitutes the basis of New Testament thought and 
doctrine. 

2. The fourteen books of the Apocrypha. 

These writings form the historical link between the Old and 
New Testaments, and by some are regarded as being equally 
canonical with the other books. 

3. The Talmud consists of the Mishna, or the Mosaic oral 
law, and the Gemara, the interpretation or explanation of the 
Mishna. 

VII. Hebrew Education. 

Primary education began and ended in the home. Says Pro- 
fessor Seeley, "We have here the highest and best type of 
family training to be found in history, a characteristic that still 
holds in Jewish families wherever they exist, and that has con- 
tributed largely to the maintenance of the strong racial peculiar- 
ities of the Jews." The religious was the great central fact in 
the early education of the child. Jewish schools did not exist 
until after the fall of the nation. 

The means of higher education lay in the Schools of the 
Prophets and the Schools of the Rabbis. In the former were 
taught such subjects as philosophy, law, poetry, medicine and 
history. The latter appeared in the first Christian centuries in 
Alexandria, Babylon and Jerusalem and gave instruction in 



theology and law. These were founded by famous teachers, 
and greatly stimulated higher learning. 

Questions and Topics for Study. 

Essential to a true understanding of Jewish history and in- 
stitutions is a knowledge of the Old Testament. West's An- 
cient History, sections 60-67, will be found helpful. Thomp- 
son's The Land and the Book. Kaye's Chart Bible, containing 
48 charts and full analysis of the Bible. 

1. The history of the Covenant — the six stages. Kaye's 
Chart Bible, pp. 26-29. 

2. Who were Jacob's twelve sons ? 

3. At what stage was Egyptian civilization when the Israel- 
ites settled in Goshen? 

4. The Tabernacle — its construction and significance. Hast- 
ings' Bible Dictionary. Kaye's Key to the Treasury (Vol. IX 
Young Folks' Bible Library). 

5. Give the names of six of the great judges of Israel. 

6. What was David's capital before the taking of Jerusalem ? 

7. Sieges and conquests of Jerusalem. History of All Na- 
tions, Vol. II, 27, 58, 125, 225, 226, 245, 287; Vol. VII, 235, 
369; IX, ri8, 269, 282. 

8. The Temple. Hastings' Bible Dictionary. 

9. What king carried Israel into captivity ? 

10. For how long a time did the kingdom of Judah exist 
after the fall of Israel? 



4Q 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



ii. What position did Daniel hold in Babylon and the Per- 
sian Empire? 

12. What happened to Jeremiah and the remnant left in 
Jerusalem after the fall of the city? 

13. During the reign of what Roman emperor was Christ 
born? In whose reign was he crucified? 

14. Why was Jerusalem destroyed by Titus? 

Phoenician History and Civilization. 

The Phoenicians, like the Hebrews, were of Semitic origin. 
Their country lay to the north of Judea, between the Mediter- 
ranean Sea and the Lebanon Mountains, a strip of land not 
more than fifteen miles wide, but about one hundred and fifty 
miles long. 

Phoenicia was settled about 2500 B. C, or several centuries 
before Abraham left Chaldea and some centuries before the 
establishment of the old Babylonian Empire by Hammurabi. 
Their geographical position necessitated communication with 
other nations by the sea, and they became among the ancients 
ihe leading maritime people. They had no national existence 
in the proper sense of the word, but acknowledged the su- 
premacy of the two cities, first Sidon until its overthrow by 
the Philistines, 1050 B. C, then Tyre until her destruction by 
Alexander the Great, 332 B. C. 

In 1800 B. C, the Egyptians gained supremacy, and in 1400 
Phoenicia came under the control of Hittites and Assyrians. 
From 1 100 to 900 B. C, was a period of independent develop- 



ment, after which for nearly four hundred years she was un- 
der the control of Assyria and Babylonia. During this period 
Sidon was destroyed by the Assyrians (678) and in 572 Tyre, 
the leading city, was invested by the Babylonians. In 539 B. 
C, Phoenicia was added to the Persian Empire. One hun- 
dred and thirty-five years after Tyre fell by Alexander, Syria 
gained control of Phoenicia, and in 64 B. C, she became a 
Roman province and disappeared as a nation. 

Commerce and Colonization. 

The ingenuity of the Phoenicians stimulated by the spirit of 
trade was manifested in their glass industry, their purple dyes 
for which they became famous, the manufacture of cloth, 
metal industries, architecture, art of writing and other arts. 
Situated as they were, they became a maritime people of first 
importance. They carried their merchandise and the products 
of the East to many ports. "Through the hands of Phoen- 
ician merchants passed the gold and pearls of the East, the 
purple of Tyre, slaves, ivory, lions' and panthers' skins from 
the interior of Africa, frankincense from Arabia, the linen 
of Egypt, the pottery and fine wares of Greece, the copper of 
Cyprus, the silver of Spain, tin from England and iron from 
Elba. These products were carried wherever a market could 
be found for them. At the instigation of Necho, King of 
Egypt (611-605 B.C.), they are said to have made a three 
years' voyage around the southern cape of Africa." As early 
as 1500 B. C, they entered into commercial relations with 
Assyria, Babylon and Arabia. 



ANCIENT ERA. 



4i 



The first great colonizing nation of the ancient world, the 
Phoenicians were the precursors of the Greeks, the Dutch and 
the English in the establishment of various settlements. In 
this they were unlike other nations who carried great multi- 
tudes of their captives to their own lands. In Cyprus and 
Crete, Spain, North Africa and the islands of the iEgean Sea 
they established depots which grew into colonies. About 1100 
B. C, they founded Cadiz, the oldest town in Europe. Another 
of their Spanish settlements was Tarshish. In 1101 B. C, 
Utica in Northern Africa was settled, and west of this Hippo, 
which became the home of Saint Augustine many centuries 
afterwards. Carthage the great rival of Rome was another of 
their depots founded about 850 B. C. 

One of the most important things in the history of this 
people was the establishment of these settlements, which de- 
veloped into colonies as viewed from, their future history and 
their relations with other states. They arose not from am- 
bitions of conquest, but from a commercial spirit facilitating 
the maritime trade of the Phoenicians. They were the mistress 
of the sea, but lacked the martial spirit. They were a peace- 
loving people, would rather pay tribute than fight for their 
/iberty, lacked the political instinct and were pre-eminently 
commercial. This was their importance in this ancient period, 
and as the great traders of antiquity did their part in the inter- 
communication of the nations. 

The Phoenicians and the Hebrews. 

Under King Hiram the power of Tyre reached its zenith. 
According to two Greek historians his reign extended from 



980 to 946 B. C. He was contemporaneous with Solomon, and 
co-operated with him in the greatest event of his reign — the 
building of the Temple in Jerusalem. For this great structure 
the Phoenicians contributed both material and workmanship. 
While they contributed to the Jewish temple, the central 
fact of the Hebrew religion and life, they also contributed 
to the downfall of Israel in the idolatry that was introduced 
and fostered by Jezebel, the wife of Ahab. We have already 
noted the persistence of idolatry in the northern kingdom and 
how it carried them to destruction and captivity by the 
Assyrians. 

Phoenician Religion. 

The chief deities of their religion were Baal and Aschera, 
Astarte finally being fused with the latter. It was a sensuous 
religion, virtue being sacrificed to Aschera and Astarte. 
Moloch was the god of fire,- and to appease him boys and girls 
were committed to the flames. In Melkarth Baal and Moloch 
became fused. To this deity great temples were dedicated. 
The god Adonis signified the dying autumn returning to life 
in the spring. 

Phoenician Letters. 

They constructed a phonetic alphabet on the basis of the 
Egyptian hieroglyphics. This was a great improvement on 
the original, since every character represented a sound. They 
were -not a literary people and their great contribution lay in 
their alphabet. This they carried with them in all their com- 



42 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTCE. 



mercial activities, and it became the foundation of modern 
alphabets, "the mother of most of the graphic systems now 
existing." Thus we see in what manner the commercial ten- 
dencies of this people became the means of circulating the 
basis of languages and thus uniting the nations. 

Questions and Topics for Study. 

The student will find Hoffman's The Beginnings of Writ- 
ing and Rawlinson's Phoenicia (Story of the Nations) helpful. 
i. For what art were the Tyrians especially famous? 

2. For what nations did the Phoenicians build ships? 

3. The Biblical account of Phoenician trade and life. Ezekiel 
xxvi-xxvii. 

4. At what stage of their national life were the Hebrews 
when Tyre came to her supremacy? 

5. During what period did Hiram render Solomon aid on 
the Temple? 

6. Introduction of Asiatic plants and animals into Europe. 
History of All Nations, Vol. I, 220. 

7. Political institutions. History of All Nations, Vol. I, 216. 

8. Which of the Phoenician settlements was the most im- 
portant historically? 

9. Colonies and trading stations. History of All Nations, 
Vol. I, 217ft. 



10. Influence of Phoenicia on Greek civilization. History 
of All Nations, Vol. I, 219. 

11. Religion and gods of Phoenicia. History of All Nations, 
Vol. I, 204ff. 

12. Was the fall of Tyre before or after the fall of Persia? 

The Chart. 

Having followed the history of these two states the leading 
facts may be brought together quickly by the chart. The 
periods of Hebrew history should be grasped and the rela- 
tions of the nation to such states as Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, 
Greece and Rome. In this manner the historic connections 
are sustained, and we see how the Jews were brought into 
vital touch with the nations of antiquity and in what manner 
they might be affected by the thought and life of this people. 
Note the central fact of the chart — the Temple — and that it is 
in this that the Hebrews and Phoenicians came into their most 
distinctive relation, while the temple centralized Jewish life and 
institutions. 

It will also be noted the vast difference between these two 
peoples — the one shut in to themselves and afraid of the sea, 
the other the great maritime people of antiquity. The atten- 
tion given to Phoenicia in the Hebrew writings should interest 
the student: Josh, xix 29, Judges xviii 7, Isa. xxiii, Ezek. 
xxvi-xxvii, xxviii 13 and other references. 



SfreeceShird Universal Smpire 



£ 



(He 



dge 




2000-1100 

\.SreeK 3ieroes.3ier- 
cules, (fheseus, etc, 

2.(7he argonauts. 

9.(frojan War. {troy 
unearthed since 
1870. 9 he tfliad. 

4.(Dorian {Migration. 

tijcfimple social life. 
(Duties and rights 
based on ancient 
customs. 



{formative Ctge 
1100-500 
\.{Jhree Glasses. 

tfparians. Gilizens. 

Perioeci. Villagers. 

dielols. eferfs. 
2.Peloponnesus ruled 

by Spartans in 500. 

Republican oligarchy 
3.(Fthens. Supremacy 

in (Middle Sreece in 

500. (Draco, Solon, 

Pisistrafus. 



Golden age 



She (Tim ofSreece-{Jo G regie the 



{Religion 
\.&recian (Deities. 
Seus, supreme god. 
2.0racles. {Methods 
employed by gods. 
Priestly messages. 
Oracular signs. 
{Dreams. 
Gommunication 
with spirits. 
{Delphic Oracle. 
{fhe most famous. 
On {Mt.Parrasfiu8 
{Made their gods in 
the form of men. 

Ghart 4 



art 



1. Orders of architec- 
ture. (Doric, ttfonic, 
Gorinlhian. 
2.Sculpiure. 

Phidias, {Myron, 
Praxiteles, 6 hares. 
S.Painting. 

Originated byGi" 
m on, 600 &.G. 
Polygnotus, found- 
er of historic paint- 
i ng, 480 $.6. 
apelles. Greatest 
Srecian painter. 



^ 500-429 
. Persian WarsSOO-479 
{Marathon, Salamis, 
{Thermopylae, (Myca- 
le.a continent saved. 
.Periclean <fy?479-429 
athens rebuilt. 
(Democracy under 
Pericles. 

(Brilliant period in 
art, architecture, lit- 
erature, philosoph y. 
Perfect tMan by {Me 



Gonquest and (Decline 



430-146 

l.Peloponnesian War, 

Oall of athens 431-04 

2.Spartan and {fheban 

s up re macy, 404=362 

Gonstitution. Philip 

Z.aiexander, 336-323. 

Gonquests-asia, S- 

Jypt, Persia, t&ndia. 
ivision of Smpire. 
B.&all oft&reece. a 

Roman province,14B. 
nlal Processes 



jQiterature 



l.Spic and (Didactic 
Poetry, 
diomer and diesiod. 

2.3he (Drama, aeschy. 
lus, Sophocles, Su- 
ripides, aristophanes. 

3,J2yric Poetry. 
Sappho, aicaeus, 
Simonides, Pindar. 

4.diislorians. 

(Herodotus, (Jhucy- 
dides, JCenopon. 

S.©rafions of (Demos- 
thenes and Oeschines 



Philosophy 



l.Pre-Socratic. 

ancient tfonians. 

Pythagoreans. 

Sleatics. 

Physicists. 

Sophists. 
2.Socrales, Plato, 
aristotle. 

{Reconstruction. 

tDoctrine ofefdeas. 
3. Post-aris to telian. 

Stoicism. Seno. 

Spicu reanism. 

Scepticism. Pyrrho 



GREECE-THIRD UNIVERSAL EMPIRE 



When we traced Orientalism to its close at the fall of Persia 
we raised the question whether the next great state would 
carry the race to a higher plane and more adequately solve 
our human problem. 

The study of history keeps before us two things: the con- 
flicts between states struggling for existence and the dominant 
position, and that larger result in which the world as a whole 
is affected. So we see Greece in its mighty conflict with the 
Persian power, overthrowing it and becoming the third uni- 
versal empire. But how much is involved in this event — how 
much more than the superiority of Grecian arms? It means 
that with the new state a new order and new ideals are to 
dominate the world while Greece is in the ascendency. These 
ideals may be low or high, but whatever they are they will be 
given a mighty impulse propelled by the force of the empire 
that rules the world. Thus the universality of a state is not 
simply a general conquest of nations, but a spreading of its 
ideas and ruling principles. It is by becoming universal in the 
matter of conquest that the larger universality is made possible. 
The whole race practically lying in the hands of such a con- 
queror receives a new impress and passes through new moulds. 
It is stamped with the mark of a new era which registers in 
the history of humanity its passage from one stage to another 
in its development. 



Again, it is of special importance that we note whether these 
changes mark a special advance, whether history points out an 
upward tendency, an evolution in human ideas and enlarge- 
ment. We expect a child to grow not simply in years and 
physical development; we expect a rational procedure in his 
growing life in which his aim and purposes, his aspirations and 
achievements are controlled by increasing wisdom and under- 
standing, a finer appreciation of himself and the world of 
which he is a part. It is this that brings him to manhood and 
not the mere matter of reaching a given age. The question is, 
does the race in its growth to maturity represent the same 
sort of historic procedure? Great moments have existed that 
were calculated to lift humanity from one stage of its life to 
the next — such moments as these great periods of universal 
empires. It required such racial experiences to accomplish the 
passage from the one point to the other. But has it been an 
ascent, an evolution from the lower to the higher, an actual 
development of the ideals and principles latent in the race? 
For example, if the civilization of Greece had antidated that 
of Orientalism, and having passed from the stage of action 
the race slumped into purely material notions, ignoring the 
creations of an intellectual age, there would be difficulty in 
accounting for human movements on a rational basis. It may 
be said that Rome did not produce such an intellectual civili- 



45 



46 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



zation as did Greece and yet followed her as a world power. 
That is true, and it will be seen when we come to the study of 
that State that her great mission lay in a different development, 
and that the order of things was not confused or interrupted, 
because intellectually she did not exceed the Greeks. 

Hence as we pursue our studies in this new moment let us 
keep in mind the following things: first, the question raised 
at the close of our Persian studies relative to the world's hope 
for an upward impulse and a larger solution of our social 
problem in the next great movement; second, the dominant 
idea in Grecian civilization; third, the manner in which this 
indicates a positive advance upon the preceding order. To note 
these things intelligently is necessary to anything like a proper 
understanding of the place and mission of Greece. At the 
close of our study we shall be prepared for the remarks to be 
made on the Mental Order, the central fact of the chart. 

Historical Periods. 

The area of Greece is the same as that of the State of West 
Virginia, and yet in this limited territory a civilization was 
developed the influence of which should reach all down the 
ages and effective at this present moment. 

We have had occasion to notice how geographical and physi- 
cal conditions have had important bearings upon historic de- 
velopment. The rich soil of the Euphrates region drew to it 
a dense population. The Nile was the life of Egypt and her 
peculiarities afforded her great protection during the early 



centuries of her existence. Palestine was shut in from the 
world. So the physical features of Greece designed it for 
the development of small states preventing them from be- 
coming a single nation under a central government. 

In the study of this superior people we shall be impressed 
with the great advance made in civilization in that Greece 
changes the whole order of things making the central idea the 
citizen instead of the king, about whom the state was organized 
previously, a great approach to the modern conception that the 
individual is the unit of society. Thus the central ideas of 
this civilization were political and intellectual freedom. In- 
deed it was this emphasis laid upon individual freedom which 
militated against the union of the entire body that is indis- 
pensable to the strength of a nation against other powers. 

These observations are made at this time rather than as con- 
clusions of our study that in the light of them the student 
might better follow the history of this people. Special attention 
is called to the Grecian character, one distinguishing trait of 
which was originality. Whatever came to their hand formed 
by others they reconstructed and stamped it with a purely 
Grecian conception. "When we leave Asiatic ground, and 
come into contact with the Greeks, we find ourselves in an- 
other atmosphere. A spirit of humanity, in the broad sense of 
the term, pervades their life. A regard for reason, a sense of 
order, a disposition to keep everything within measure is a 
marked characteristic. Their sense of form — including a per- 
ception of beauty, and of harmony and proportion — made them 
in politics and letters the leaders of mankind. Their language, 



ANCIENT ERA. 



47 



without a rival in flexibility and symmetry and in perfection 
of sound, is itself, though a spontaneous creation, a work of 
art." Such a people living in a genial and invigorating cli- 
mate, fanned by the breezes of mountain and sea, so well 
trained physically and intellectually, come upon the stage of 
action to create a new world in human appreciations and de- 
velopment. 

II. The Heroic Period. 

Grecian history falls into four periods which set forth a 
steady advance to the point of decline and fall of the empire. 
The chronology of the Heroic Period is very uncertain. The 
chart indicates a period of 900 years, or from the time of 
Hellen and his sons to the Dorian migration. While in this 
period the Achaeans are predominant it is with the Dorians and 
Ionians that authentic history mainly is concerned. The for- 
mer were distinguished as soldiers, and their training was to 
this end and away from mental pursuits and interests. They 
were a hardy people, stern and unimaginative. Sparta was 
their chief city. On the other hand, the Ionians, the great 
rivals of the Dorians, had a larger vision of life. They recog- 
nized the claims of the mind as well as the body, and the 
training and development of all the faculties of the soul. 
From them came historians, artists and philosophers. Their 
life was centered in Athens. 

Prior to the beginning of authentic history the Greeks fill 
the time with mythical accounts describing the action of gods 



and heroes. It is important that we catch the spirit of this 
period for it distinguishes an order of mind and imagina- 
tion that antedates the period of critical reflection. And it is 
especially desirable in connection with this people to observe 
their mental growth and evolution. This is the distinctive 
Grecian fact and hence is invested with a chief interest. In 
this early period their imagination pictures gods and heroes in 
superhuman activities. But these were the expressions of 
their own ideals of character and conduct. They reflect the 
estimate of life's values as cherished by this early people. In 
other words, imagination is strongly operative, and while there 
may be a nucleus of historical fact bound up with their tales, 
the separation of which from the fictitious being an almost 
useless attempt, the thing of real value is the distinction of 
the ideal element. These same tendencies would not exist 
under more critical conditions. When that time comes we 
have a different Greece. But during this early period it is for 
us to see in these mythical representations the embodiment of 
Grecian ideals of character, and in so doing we discover the 
really important thing regarding this people. 

While the Doric Spartans settled in Laconia, the Ionians 
settled in Attica and the Achsans moved on to the southern 
shore of the Corinthian Gulf. 

In the Homeric age laws, as we use the term, were not for- 
mulated. Ancient usage determined moral questions. "The 
legend of the Trojan War presents to us the first instance of 
a united national enterprise." 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



The social life of this age was patriarchial. Polygamy was 
unknown, and women held in high regard. 

Early religious ideas and customs are well set forth in the 
poems of Homer. Among other things they distinguish es- 
pecially (i) The nature of the gods — human beings endowed 
with great powers. (2) The relation of the gods to men — 
their various methods of communication. (3) Forms of relig- 
ious service such as sacrifice and supplication. (4) Propitia- 
tion of deities and the future life in Hades. 

Questions and Topics for Study. 

1. What parts were included in Northern Greece? Of what 
states did Central Greece consist? Southern Greece? 

2. How did the Greeks explain their origin? 

3. Who was the most famous of the Greek heroes? What 
was the distinction of Theseus and Perseus? 

4. Give an outline of the legend of the Argonauts and the 
Golden Fleece. 

5. What was the cause of the Trojan War and how did it 
issue? What is the connection between Troy and the title of 
Homer's great work? 

6. Where were the iEolian colonies situated? The Ionian? 
The Dorian? 

The best sources of Greek life during this period are 
Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. For the prose versions of the 
Iliad we commend Lang, Leaf and Myers, and for the Odyssey 
Butcher and Lang. We suggest the study of the following 
topics : 



1. In the Iliad. 

( 1 ) The gods, i, 400-430, 526-61 1 ; ii, 403-434. 

(2) The king, i, 75-306. 

(3) Treatment of captives, vi, 50-75. 

(4) Funeral ceremony, xxiii, 254-897. 

2. In the Odyssey. 

(1) Regard for Women, i, 344-360; ii, 1 17-145. 

(2) Commerce, i, 180-192; iii, 69-75. 

(3) Hades, xi. 

3. The Trojan War, Vergil's Aeneid, bks ii, iii. 

2. The Formative Period. 

With the two peoples of ancient Greece, the Dorians and 
Ionians, are associated the two cities, Sparta and Athens, the 
history of which is practically the history of Greece. This 
period of the formation of these states covers about six hun- 
dred years. 

(1) The Spartan State. 

This is the oldest Greek state. The form of the Spartan 
Constitution was the work of Lycurgus, who was revered by 
the Spartans as the founder of their greatness. How much 
of the full content of this constitution came from the hand of 
Lycurgus we do not know. Having formulated a code of laws 
it is said that Lycurgus received from the Spartans an oath 



ANCIENT ERA. 



49 



that they would observe all the requirements of the code until 
he should return to them from a journey he was about to take. 
He spent the remainder of his life in exile and never returned. 
The provisions of this code sought to develop a strong physi- 
cal race. Deformed children were left to perish, healthy chil- 
dren were trained by the State by vigorous exercises and drills 
for military purposes. 

The Spartan State was aristocratic. It was the first State 
constitutionally governed, and what is of peculiar importance 
to us in tracing human developments is, that the organization 
of this State marks the beginning of the great movement to- 
wards human liberty. We said that the government was aris- 
tocratic. It has also been called a republican oligarchy. "It 
was republican in that the sovereign power resided in the whole 
body of Spartans, and was exercised by representatives elected 
by them. It was an oligarchy because a few— the Spartans- 
constituted a ruling class. The Periceci and Helots had abso- 
lutely no voice in the government." 

Messenia was conquered 600 B. C, and the southern part 
of Argolis, and before the close of the sixth century B. C, with 
the exception of the northern portion of Argolis, Sparta had 
under her dominion all the states of the Peloponnesus. 

(2) The Athenian State. 

We have already noted the manner in which the Ionians 
were distinguished from the Dorians, the point of difference 
consisting mainly in the aesthetic and intellectual interests of 
the former. 



Athens was formerly ruled by kings. According to tradi- 
tion Codrus was the last Athenian king, for upon his death it 
was believed that no one was worthy to succeed him, and the 
office of archon was created. From 1050 to 752 B. C, thirteen 
life-archons are said to have held this office. Following this 
period a change took place in which the term of office was 
limited to ten years. 

The oppression of the nobles led to a demand for a code of 
written laws. It was prepared by Draco, "a code so vigorous 
that the word 'draconian' came to mean harsh and rigid. It 
was said of his laws that they were written in blood." A re- 
bellion followed, led by Cylon, and in 594 B. C, Solon, one 
of "the seven wise men of Greece," prepared a new constitu- 
tion. In this he aimed to relieve the oppression by a more 
popular government, and while he left the power mainly in 
the hands of the upper class he paved the way for democracy 
by admitting to citizenship and a share in the government all 
free-born Athenians. By various provisions he attempted to 
relieve the poverty and distress of the people. But his legis- •-' 
lation failed to satisfy and three parties arose — the party un- 
der Lycurgus, a party headed by Pisistratus, and a middle 
party under Megacles. 

Athens now passed through a period of the rule of the 
Tyrants and the Pisistratids until Clisthenes, attaching him- 
self to the popular party and making such changes in the 
constitution that he became the founder of the Athenian De- 
mocracy. "Under this system of free government, the energy 
of the Athenian people was developed with amazing rapidity. 



5° 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



The spirit of patriotism, of zeal for the honor and welfare of 
Athens, rose to a high pitch. The power and resources of the 
city increased in a proportionate degree. Culture kept pace 
with prosperity." Under these new conditions, which fully 
justified the wisdom of Clisthenes, the strength of Athens so 
increased that in 500 B. C, she was supreme in Middle Greece 
and the rival of Sparta, the dominant power in the Peloponne- 
sus. 

Let us pause at this point to get the full bearing of these de- 
velopments not only upon the history of Greece but upon the 
advancement of the race in the establishment of free institu- 
tions. It is humanity back in antiquity struggling for its 
larger individualism, the dominating element of modern civili- 
zation. Here we find the germs of modern institutions and 
ideals. The advance towards human liberty was begun in the 
organization of the Spartan State. In Athens we see the 
steady growth from the period of the kings, through the office 
of the Archons, the demands of the people, to the operation of 
the principles of democracy, and under the latter the justifica- 
tion of government by the people for the people. 

Questions and Topics for Study. 

1. What were the three classes in the Spartan State? Who 
alone could be citizens? 

2. What was the aim and policy of the State regarding the 
wealth of its citizens? 

3. How was the Spartan Assembly constituted? What were 
its powers and functions? 



4. What were the functions of the Council of Elders? 

5. What was the power of the Ephors and how did it com- 
pare with that of other offices? 

6. How did the State exercise its discipline over its subjects, 
including male and female? 

7. Lycurgus and his work. Plutarch's Lycurgus. 

8. When did the period of the Archons in Athens begin? 

9. What led to the revolt of Cylon and how did this bring 
about Draco's legislation? 

10. What were some of the severities of his laws? 

11. Into what four classes, according to their income, did 
Solon divide the citizens? 

12. What were some of his remedies against existing evils? 

13. The reforms of Solon. Aristotle's Politics, iii, 14; iv, 10. 
Grote's History, vol. iii, chs. x, xi. 

14. What were the great benefits of the rule of Pisistratus ? 

15. Pisistratus. Aristotle's Constitution of Athens. 

16. Who were the Alcmaeonidse and what did they do for 
Athens ? 

17. What were some of the great changes made in the 
constitution by Clisthenes, and how were they calculated to 
establish a democracy? 

18. Citizenship under Clisthenes. Botsford's Athenian Con- 
stitution, 198, 199. History of All Nations, vol. iii, 145 f. 

3. The Golden Age. 

In the steady advance of Grecian life and achievement we 
come to that period of war and struggle that was the vestibule 



ANCIENT ERA. 



5* 



of Hellenic civilization, and on the battlefield of Marathon 
stand at the birthplace of Grecian glory. 

(1) The Persian Wars. 

Persia was the dominant power in the world, and under her 
dominion the Greek colonies in Asia Minor had been held for 
over forty years. Hippias had been in the court of Darius 
urging him to open a war against his own country, and the 
Greeks, knowing that it was the purpose to restore this tyrant 
to power determined to cast off the Persian yoke. After seven 
years the revolt was subdued, and to punish the Athenians, 
Darius sent under the guidance of Hippias a force of 120,000 
men while but 10,000 Athenians awaited on the slope of Mount 
Pentelicus. On the plain of Marathon was presented one of 
the most unusual spectacles in the history of human conflict — ■ 
a small band of valiant men arrayed against a force twelve 
times their number. But in that engagement lay a glorious 
future, the creation of new elements in the world's civilization. 
By the tactics of Miltiades the Persians were defeated and 
routed. 

Determined to crush Greece and recover what had been lost 
at Marathon, Darius set about securing an overwhelming 
force. Dying in the midst of these preparations (486 B. C), 
his son Xerxes continued the enterprise, and in 480 B. C., set 
out with his army of 1,700,000 infantry and 80,000 cavalry, 
while the fleet numbered over 4,000 vessels all told. 

Themistocles was the leading man in Athens and he coun- 
selled his State to enlarge her naval force. In a naval battle 



while the Persian armada suffered the more, the Greek fleet 
was badly crippled. 

The Spartan king, Leonidas, with less than 5,000 men held 
the pass of Thermopylae and awaited the mighty force of 
Xerxes. So successfully did they resist the Persians that 
Xerxes despaired of success when a Greek betrayed to him a 
path across the mountain. Overwhelmed by force of numbers 
the Greeks were annihilated while the Persians lost 20,000 men. 

The way was now open for the capture of Athens and laying 
of Attica in desolation. Themistocles planned to bring the 
Persian fleet into the narrow straits of Salamis and placed the 
Grecian fleet of 380 ships for an attack. The ruse he employed 
succeeded, and Salamis stands on the page of Grecian history 
as one of her great victories. The retreat of Xerxes "may be 
regarded as the virtual decision of that great conflict between 
eastern despotism and European liberty, which forms one of 
the most important chapters in the history of the world." 

Again did Persia attempt the conquest of Greece and at 
Plataea suffered a terrible defeat, while on the same day both 
army and fleet were crushed at Mycale. "The effect of Mara- 
thon, Thermopylae, Salamis, Plataea and Mycale was to give 
the death blow to Persian rule in Europe. Grecian valor had 
saved a continent from eastern slavery and barbarism." 

It is this great result that claims our special attention. On 
the field of battle the old civilization meets the new power. By 
the force of arms mighty issues are being settled of far greater 
moment than simply the military success of this or that force. 
These conflicts are decisive in human history in changing the 



52 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



whole course of events. The world is involved. It is of tre- 
mendous importance whether in these struggles barbarism is 
to gain a new hold upon humanity, or whether they are to 
open the way for a higher civilization to burst into glory and 
be carried to all mankind. 

(2) The Periclean Age. 

Between the close of the Persian Wars and the Peloponne- 
sian War was a period of about fifty years, an interval of one 
of the most glorious epochs in Grecian history. "The Age 
of Pericles is that epoch in which Athens attained the glorious 
height in art, architecture, poetry, government and statesman- 
ship which made her the cynosure of all succeeding ages." 

The establishment of the Athenian supremacy may be 
reckoned from 479 to 462 B. C. Athens was rebuilt. The 
confederacy of Delos, composed of Athens, several states of 
Middle Greece, the islands of the iEgean and Greek states of 
Asia Minor, was established. This confederacy became an 
Athenian Empire. Thus the increase in Athenian power was 
the result of the Persian Wars. The government was de- 
veloped, progress in liberty yielded greater liberty to the citi- 
zen and the beginnings of a republic were laid. 

Pericles, the grand-nephew of Clisthenes, was brought un- 
der the intellectual influence of the sophist Damon, Zeno and 
Anaxagoras. He became the leader of the popular party, built 
the walls connecting Athens with the Piraeus and adorned 
the city with a great system of public architectural works. 
His greatest work for the State lay in his system of coloniza- 



tion as related to Thracian Chersonesus, the island of Naxos 
Andros, Lemnos, Imbros and Scyros and other sections. But 
the name of Pericles stands for more than these things. "Al- 
though the legislation enacted under the influence of Pericles 
left a profound impression upon the constitution of Athens; 
although his policy as an administrator promoted the wealth 
and glory of the state ; and although his orations moved the 
people as they had never been moved before, it is not as a law- 
giver, a statesman or an orator that he is best known. It was 
rather as a patron of art, architecture and literature that he 
made his age the most brilliant intellectual epoch in Athenian 
history." It is only necessary to give the names that have im- 
mortalized this period and have made it the Golden Age of 
Greece : Ictimus, Callicrates, Phidias, Polygnotus, JEschylus, 
Sophocles, Herodotus, Socrates, Plato, Euripides, Aristo- 
phanes, Thucydides, Praxiteles, Xenophon, Isocrates. Within 
so brief a period the world has never given another such list 
of names to enlarge and enrich our intellectual development. 
"Never before had there been such a union of the material and 
intellectual elements of civilization at the seat of empire. 
Literature and art had been carried to the utmost perfection 
possible to human genius." 

Questions and Topics for Study. 

1. Why did Hippias enter the Persian court and seek to in- 
volve Persia in war with Greece? 

2. What act of the Greeks led Darius into the first conflict 
with them? 



ANCIENT ERA. 



53 



3. What failure caused the fall of Miltiades ? 

4. In what battle did the Greek States form a union? 

5. Themistocles. Plutarch's Themistocles and Aristides. 

6. What was the offense and punishment of Pausanias? 

7. Who was the more honorable and patriotic, Themistocles 
or Aristides? 

8. What were the conditions leading to the Confederacy of 
Delos, and what was required of each member of the league? 

9. What measures did Athens adopt when she came to su- 
premacy in the confederation? 

10. What service did Cimon render the State? 

11. Training for Athenian citizenship. Freeman's Federal 
Government, pp. 37-43. 

12. Was Pericles an Archon? What position did he hold in 
the State? 

13. What constitutional changes under Pericles made 
Athens a complete democracy? 

14. The Character of Pericles. Plutarch's Pericles. Shel- 
don's General History, 102-105. 

15. Influence of the wife of Pericles upon his life. Lan- 
dor's Pericles and As.pasia. 

4. Period of Decline. 

On the weakness of the Empire Myer has made some im- 
portant observations, a few of which we note : "But there were 
elements of weakness in the splendid structure. The subject 
cities of the empire were the slaves of Athens .... Nat- 



urally they regarded Athens as the destroyer of Hellenic 
liberties and watched impatiently for the first favorable mo- 
ment to revolt and throw off the hateful yoke. Hence the 
Athenian Empire rested upon a foundation of sand. 

"Had Athens, instead of enslaving her confederates of the 
Delian league, only been able to find out some way of retain- 
ing them as allies in an equal union — a great and perhaps im- 
possible task in that age of the world — as head of the fed- 
erated Greek race, she might have secured for Hellas the sov- 
ereignity of the Mediterranean, and the history of Rome might 
have ended with the first century of the Republic. 

"Furthermore, in his system of payment for the most com- 
mon public services and of wholesale public gratuities, Per- 
icles had introduced or encouraged practices that had the same 
demoralizing effects upon the Athenians that the free distribu- 
tion of grain at Rome had upon the Roman populace. These 
pernicious customs cast discredit upon labor, destroyed fru- 
gality and fostered idleness, thus sapping the virtue and 
strength of the Athenian democracy. 

"Illustrations of these weaknesses, as well as of the strength 
of the Athenian Empire, will be afforded by the great strug- 
gle between Athens and Sparta, known as the Peloponnesian 
War." 

In turning to this page of Grecian history we see the out- 
working of great abiding principles. We have seen how great 
states are born, we now see how they die. Athens cannot vio- 
late fundamental law with impunity. When she refused to 
be guided by the policy of Aristides and robbed her allies of 



54 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



treasure and liberty, she entered a downward course that 

issued in ruin. 

(i) The Peloponnesian War. 

We have already suggested the cause of the war in speaking 
of the desire on the part of the weaker states to throw off the 
Athenian yoke. Again, Sparta was as ambitious to be the 
dominating power as was Athens. 

There were three periods of the war. The First Period, 
431-421. At the close of the period the Athenians were de- 
feated in the battle of Amphipolis, while the Spartans sus- 
tained heavy losses. 

The Second Period, 421-413. In this period Alcibiades, 
the pupil of Socrates, figured largely both in connection with 
the expedition to Sicily and his treasonable conduct. The 
period ended with the failure of the expedition, a blow from 
which Athens suffered severely. 

The Third Period, 413-404. A new constitution was 
adopted, setting aside the laws of Solon and Clisthenes, which 
turned the government into an aristocracy ; but at the end of 
six months the democracy was re-established. Alcibiades was 
reinstated. The battle of iEgospotami (405 B. C.) practically 
decided the war. Athens was forced to surrender and Sparta 
dictated her terms of peace. "With the fall of Athens the op- 
portunity for welding the Grecian states into an empire was 
lost. Sparta was unequal to the task and the country soon fell 
under the arms and corruption of Persia, which soon extended 
her rule over the Asiatic Greeks. The reinstatement of Per- 



sian domination marked the downfall of Greek political free- 
dom, which was as dear to Sparta as to Athens." 

Questions. 

Thucydides is the great historian of the war. For the ter- 
rible plague in the third year of the war read his preface to 
the History of the Peloponnesian War. Plutarch's Lives — 
Alcibiades and Nicias and Freeman's Story of Sicily should 
be read in connection with the closing years of the war. De- 
cisive Battles of the World, Ch. ii, should be read for the de- 
feat of the Athenians at Syracuse. 

(a) Who were the Athenian allies? The Spartan? 

(b) What was the occasion of the Spartan invasion of At- 
tica in the first period? 

(c) What did Athens intend by the expedition to Sicily, 
and in this connection what was the mutilation of the Herman? 

(d) In what sense was the battle of Syracuse one of the 
decisive battles of the world? 

(e) In the third period what misfortunes befell Athens 
from a Persian alliance with Sparta? 

(f) What part did Alcibiades take in replacing the dem- 
ocracy by an aristocracy? What were the provisions of the 
new constitution? 

(g) What terms of peace were dictated by Sparta? 

(2) The Spartan and Theban Supremacy. 
With the fall of Athens Sparta was utterly incapable of 
unifying the Grecian states, and the brief period of her su- 



ANCIENT ERA. 



55 



premacy (404-371 B. C.) was one of conflict which issued in 
her own downfall. 

The Theban leader Epaminondas announced the decision 
that Thebes would no longer submit to Spartan rule, and in 
the remarkable battle of Leuctra which followed completely 
defeated the Spartans. The nine years of Theban supremacy 
were filled with war, and in 338 Greece was defeated and 
ruined by Philip of Macedon. 

Questions and Topics for Study. 

(a) How did the thirty tyrants come to rule, and how was 
it characterized? 

(b) Under what conditions was the Constitution restored? 

(c) What was the occasion of the expedition of the Ten 
Thousand? 

(d) The retreat of the Ten Thousand. Xenophon's Ana- 
basis. Grote's History, Vol. vii., 173-348. 

(e) A comparison of Athenian and Spartan rule. Cox's 
Athenian Empire, 229-231. 

(f) What remarkable tactics were employed by Epaminon- 
das in the battle of Leuctra? 

(g) What measures did Philip employ to secure control of 
Greece, and what was the success of Demosthenes in opposing 
his schemes? 

(h) Philip and Demosthenes. Demosthenes' Philippics and 
On the Crown. 

(3) Alexander the Great. 



We have traced the rise and consummation of the Athenian 
State together with the brilliant civilization in art, literature 
and philosophy which she created. We have seen under what 
conditions she declined and fell. It now remains for a new 
power and personality to take this glorious intellectual achieve- 
ment, carry it far beyond the national bounds and give it 
world-wide significance. What Athens could not do for her- 
self, after she fell from her high political eminence, is to be 
done for her by another, and while dead as to political dis- 
tinction is alive again in that of which she was most essen- 
tially representative. "Alexander revolutionized the East, or 
so much of it as was connected with the West by intercourse 
or reciprocal influence. The results of a conquest effected in 
ten years continued for as many centuries, and remain in 
some respects to the present day. The Hellenization of West- 
ern Asia and Northeastern Africa, which dates from Alex- 
ander's successes, is one of the most remarkable facts in the 
history of the human race, and one of those most pregnant 
with important consequences." 

With his hand firmly laid upon Greece he undertakes the 
conquest of Asia. The pupil of Aristotle, the greatest mind 
of Greece, there was developed in him a love for art, poetry 
and philosophy. Whatever may have been his ambition to 
create for himself a name greater than that of any commander 
or statesman, the ultimate purpose of his conquest was to ex- 
tend over Asia the Hellenic civilization and not simply the 
conquest of its peoples. As one of the most intellectual men 
of his time we view his conquest from an altogether mistaken 



56 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



angle by laying the chief emphasis upon his military successes. 
In their largest significance they must be interpreted in terms 
of his intellectual enterprises. Arnold truly says "unlike the 
transient whirlwinds of Asiatic warfare, the advance of the 
Macedonian leader was no less deliberate than rapid; at every 
step the Greek power took root, and the language and civiliza- 
tion of Greece were planted from the shores of the iEgean 
to the banks of the Indus, from the Caspian to the cataracts of 
the Nile, to exist actually for nearly a thousand years, and in 
their effects to endure forever." When he carried conquests 
into Asia he "was accompanied by poets, historians, phil- 
osophers and scientists." 

Alexandria, the second Athens, he founded, nations yielded 
to his rule, by his mighty hand in the battle of Arbela he laid 
in ruins Persia the second universal empire, he established and 
consolidated the new world-empire, but in it all the one out- 
standing fact which invests the achievements of this mighty 
conqueror with supreme significance was the establishment of 
the empire of Grecian civilization. All that that brilliant race 
had done by the great souls who had labored in the realm of 
thought has been gathered up and scattered as seed in the 
world's soil and thus advanced humanity's intellectual evolu- 
tion. 

Questions and Topics for Study. 

For this section the student will find very helpful Benjamin 
Ide Wheeler's excellent work, Alexander the Great, Mahaffy's 



The Story of Alexander's Empire, Freeman's Periods of 
European History, Lecture I, History of All Nations. 

i. What difficulties stood in Alexander's way in succeeding 
his father, and how did he deal with them? 

2. When did he enter upon his Asiatic conquests? 

3. What was the Gordian knot? 

4. Where was fought the battle of Issus and of what great 
service was the victory to Alexander's plans? 

5. How long did it take him to reduce Tyre, Gaza and 
Egypt? 

6. What great importance attaches to the founding of Alex- 
andria in the point of commercial position? 

7. When was the battle of Arbela fought, which army was 
under the most favorable conditions, and what three capitals 
at once surrendered to Alexander? 

8. The Macedonian phalanx. Curteis' Rise of the Mace- 
donian Empire. 

9. What length of time was devoted to the conquest of 
India? How many new cities did he establish in this region? 

10. What method did Alexander employ in bringing the 
East into union with the West? 

12. What city did the conqueror choose as the capital of his 
empire, and what honors were shown him there? 

13. What enterprises had he in hand when death overtook 
him? How long did he reign, and at what age did he die? 

14. Summarize the Conquests of Alexander. 

15. Alexander's greatness poetically represented. Dryden's 
ode, Alexanders Feast. 



ANCIENT ERA. 



57 



16. In the disintegration of the empire how was it divided 
between Alexander's four generals? 

17. In what two battles was Macedonia overthrown by 
Rome? 

18. When was the political life of Greece extinguished and 
made a Roman province ? 

Grecian Civilization. 

With the Grecian four types of civilization have come be- 
fore us in our study of the ancient world which mark the gen- 
eral progress of the race from century to century. The 
Egyptians invented paper making and symbolic writing. The 
Chinese invented printing by engraved blocks. The nations 
of the Tigris-Euphrates region invented cuneiform writing and 
the preservation of their records on clay tablets. The Greeks 
founded the State on principles of intellectual and political 
liberty and created a brilliant civilization in literature and art. 

The Grecian life breathes the spirit of humanity. Of the 
nations of antiquity she alone opened her arms to the world 
at large. "The characteristics of the Greek brought him into 
sympathy with man as man, and made him in the ancient 
world the representative of universal humanity. The Jew 
and the Roman were by nature exclusive. The Jew could 
fraternize readily with him only who came from Abraham 
and received the prophets ; the Roman with him only who 
wielded power in the empire or was born to a place in the 
empire. The full-grown Jew was a Pharisee; the full-grown 



Roman a Csesar ; but the full-grown Greek was a world-man." 

While their religion was based upon certain fundamental 
ideas there was no uniform religious system peculiar to the 
Greeks. There was diversity in it all, and in this realm the 
versatility and flexibility of the Greek character are clearly 
defined. 

In architecture he brought forth the three great orders and 
exemplified them in columns and temples, the Theseum ex- 
hibiting the Doric, the Temple of Diana the Ionic, and the 
Corinthian type in the Corinthian capital and entablature. 

Sculpture was regarded by them as a divine communication 
and only the aesthetic temperament of the Greek could create 
the Venus de Milo, statue of Athena, Zeus, the undraped 
Aphrodite, the Faun, the Colossus at Rhodes, etc. 

Of Greek literature little can be said within our space. In 
poetry, oratory and philosophy the Greeks have never been 
surpassed. To them belongs Homer, the greatest of all epic 
poets of any age or people. His great works constitute the 
Bible of the Greeks. Any sort of acquaintance with the epic 
and didactic poets, the lyric poets, the dramatists, historians 
and orators of Greece together with her philosophers, will at 
once justify all that has been said regarding the grandeur and 
glory of this Hellenic civilization. 

In philosophy the Greek mind did not develop a single sys- 
tem but many systems. Philosophical thinking, the inquiry 
relative to the causes of things and the ultimate grounds of 
knowledge, in the proper sense of the word originated with 
the Greeks, when Thales raised the question as to the funda- 



58 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



mental explanation of phenomena. Pre-Socratic philosophy 
carries us through the five schools as indicated by the chart, 
ending with the disquisitions and negative tendencies of the 
Sophists. The reaction began with Socrates, who established 
the foundations of positive knowledge which was carried to 
its fuller development by Plato and Aristole. Pose-Aristotelian 
philosophy took three leading forms — Stoicism as represented 
by Zeno, Epicureanism as set forth by Epicurus and Scepticism 
having Pyrrho as its leading exponent. In these great systems 
Greece introduced the world to intellectual processes in the 
search for the fundamental and taught it to think. She ex- 
hibited the world of thought, reason and critical inquiry and 
raised humanity to a new plane in the realm of the rational. 

The Mental Order. 

We will remember that Orientalism represented the Material 
Order and will call to mind what was said in that connection. 
At that stage of human progress that was as far as the race 
could reach. At the hand of Alexander, Persia went to her 
grave and new and sweeping conquests filled the world with 
new ideals. At the close of our studies in Orientalism we 
raised the question whether there was something better in store 
for the race, something that would advance humanity in its 
development and lift it to a higher plane. That question has 
been abundantly answered by the Grecian civilization worked 
out during the days of Athen's glory and carried to the world 
by the Macedonian conqueror. No one stops to question 



whether the new order is an advance upon the old. It marks 
a long step forward in the evolution of the race, a hand lead- 
ing it to the very door of unexplored regions. 

The Grecian idea was the creation of the perfect man by 
mental processes. He was the representative of the intellec- 
tual order. His position expressed the idea that there is 
nothing great in the world but man, and nothing great in 
man but mind. Hence to attain to the perfect man is to 
reach the highest mental development. With such an ideal 
the Greek was inspired to think himself into greatness, into all 
that would bring to view the vast range of thought and feel- 
ing. No other race has thought so deeply or produced as 
much. She cannot be effaced. She lives in her ideals and 
marvelous creations. She gave the human mind an impulse 
such as it never received from another hand. At the feet of 
this teacher the world still sits and draws from her instruction 
and inspiration. She fashioned her gods in the image of men, 
and from making gods like men she would make men like 
unto the gods. 

And now standing upon the peaks to which Greece has con- 
ducted us, we again raise the question is there anything more 
that lies within the power of antiquity to do for the race? Is 
she exhausted of her resources? Is there something else fun- 
damental in our human constitution that it is the mission of 
some other great State, some other great civilization, to bring 
forth, realize, and universalize? What else are we besides 
being creatures of material appreciations and having intellec- 
tual possibilities? The last great movement of antiquity will 



ANCIENT ERA. 



59 



answer that question before it passes from the stage of action. 
And thus by the tracing of human struggle and achievement 
through the ages we discover the essentials of history. 

The Chart. 

We are now in a position to review the facts of this great 
moment by the chart. It presents in a condensed form all we 



have said in this section of our study. Grasp the arrangement 
of the chart in seeing its central fact about which all is related. 
This is the essential thing. However much may be remem- 
bered or forgotten of the particulars lay hold of the great 
general truth, that of which this State is essentially repre- 
sentative, and thus keep well in hand these historic mile-stones 
in the onward march of humanity. 



(Rome-(fourlh Universal Smpire 



(the {Roman (?dea-(Jhe (Race Under jGaw, Divinity of the tflale 



(K ingdom-jCegendary Period 



l.Sarly 

(flrug- \ \.(Romulus and (Remus, 758 ^.(9. 
gles and \ 2.c7he (feven (Kings, 753-509. 
Sxpansion.\ (Romulus, (Wuma Pompilius, 
a.Plebeian *e-^ Siostilius,(Marlius, Priscus, 
cession, 494. ^ (fervius (Julius, (Fuperbus. 
b.jGaws. Qgra- ** .8. Patricians, 
rian, Publilian, \. Plebian inferiority. 
(Jwelve (fables. \ 4. Gonsliluhon oftYervius. 
c.Orom the taking \ $.(fenale elected by the 
offaii to the war 
with Pyrr h us, 396-27 



&ox 



?«/ 



\.(Jhe (King. 6hief ruler to 509. 
2.(fenate-l$b0 members-life office. 




< eJerence,Galo. 



king. 

Smpire 
l.Sxpansion 
(from (Augustus to 
(Jrajan, 27 $.<?.-H7 M 
Ghristianity introduced. 
2. Prosperity from (Ha- 
drian to Cturelius, 117-180. 
9^3. Decline from Gommodus 
theSast. * to Diocletian, 180-305. 
ft. (Jour per- ^4.jCast Days of the Smpire. 
iods, from?' Gonstantine the Sreat, 306-337. 
Sracchi / tfulian the (Apostate, 361-363. 
to 6cta-/ Valentinian and Yalens, 864-378. 
(Jheodosius the Sreat, 879-395: 
(fall of Western Smpire, 476 (T.0. 

G hart 5 



3.(Jhe Popular (Assembly. 
^.(Republican Sfovernmeni, 

Dictator, (Jribunes. (Need 

of central government. v 
&.(7mperial Government, yefallust, Virgil, 

Provincial. / 3forace,(Dvid,jGivy. 

(Monarchy distinctiv e/ (Df the (Age of Decline 



S r&olden (Ape 

f 63-14 (a.d 

fc Gicero,Gaesar, 



xe uge of tiJecline 
under Diocletian. / zfeneca,(Marlial,&uve- 



2.Punic Wars. 

(the (first, 264-241. 

(Jhe efecond,2lS-201. 

(the (third, 149-146. 
S.cfrom conquest of 

(fpain to (fall o 

(Republic. & 

a. (fpain and £ 




>ligion 



nal, (Jacitus, Ctu relius. 



\.(A stale re- 
igion, at first undei 
direction of the kint 
jQeft to the senate a 
ing the (Republic. 



(Architecture. Gapitol, 
Pantheon, Golosseum, 
Gircus (Maximus. 
ur\2. tfculpture. conflu- 
ence ofSreek arf. 
2,Ghief Deities. Jupiter, \Portrail statues, 
"'anus, (Mars, tfaturn, V 3. Painting, 
vesta, $acchu8,(Quirinus. ^ Describing 
B.Vestal Virgins. \ victories. 

(fix priestesses of Vesta. \(Mural art. 
4.(Religious offices and festivals, \6hristian 
(Jhe four sacred colleges. \art in the 

(Rites regulated by the state. \elosing 
Gonflici of Paganism with Ghristianitysperiod. 



ROME-FOURTH UNIVERSAL EMPIRE 



A great State does not cease to exist when it comes to its 
decline, when its power is broken and a new State holds sway. 
It was iiot necessary for the empire of Alexander to continue 
in order to accomplish the mission of Greece. It was because 
she did accomplish it that she ceased to exist, viewing empires 
from the standpoint of their contribution to human progress. 
Her influence is to be felt throughout the period that is to 
follow, guiding much of the new civilization Rome is to 
create. Thus the ruling interests of one State find their fuller 
expression in the next. 

What was said in the introductory remarks relative to 
Greece applies to the advent of the Fourth Universal Empire. 
We saw how certain questions were answered by the Grecian 
civilization. As we stand at the dawn of a new order other 
questions arise, just as we will find that history is a series of 
interrogation points but constantly removed. It was an im- 
portant question whether we would find a true evolutionary 
procedure in the world-development. Greece answered that 
question in the affirmative, in showing how the mental fol- 
lows the material. So far so good. It remains to be seen 
whether Rome will exhibit man in a new order of his being 
that required for its full expression just such a universal 
State. This was the question raised at the close of our last 
study, i. e., what remained that had not found distinction in 



61 



Greece; what fundamental fact of our life awaited its real 
genesis and unfolding. 

If there is such and it is the province of Rome to call it 
forth then we will readily understand two things,: first, that 
her problem is different from the Grecian and that a still 
larger intellectual achievement is not the thing required; and, 
second, that the movement is a progressive one. In other 
words in what sense and degree is the history of these em- 
pires the discovery of basic human conditions and possibilities? 
Only as this fundamental question is answered can it be said 
that our study of these States have brought us true returns. 

Before taking up the facts of this new empire one thing 
should be emphasized. It is the importance of the intellectual 
civilization preceding Rome exerting a profound influence 
upon these Roman tendencies which, without the humanizing 
influence of Greece, would have been cruel in the extreme. 
The Roman was the man of iron and was so represented by 
Daniels' Historic Man in the limbs and feet of iron (Dan. ii). 
His was an iron rule, and his tendency was to place his iron 
heel upon the neck of humanity. It was the Grecian civiliza- 
tion that modified and tempered what otherwise would have 
been more cruel and crushing than it was. 

As we enter this study it is for us to discover the ruling 
principle of this last world-empire; to note its vital signifi- 



62 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



cance in the racial development ; and to observe at what point 
in its constitutional unfolding Rome leaves the race; and also 
the existing elements of civilization with which the Medieval 
Age was provided at the fall of the Western Empire. 

At the close of our study we will be prepared for the re- 
marks to be made on the central fact of the chart. 

The Roman Kingdom. 

It is hardly necessary to call attention to the fact that the 
word Rome is used in different senses, according to the his- 
toric period in connection with which it is spoken. It might 
mean a small section of land about the Palatine hill, or the 
capital of Italy, or the world over which it held dominion. 

Until recently, or prior to the nineteenth century, histor- 
ians quite generally accepted the events of the legendary 
period as historically true, and some continue to do so. The 
German scholar Niebuhr has rendered valuable service in 
showing that there is little foundation for the stories in Roman 
history prior to 390 B. C. While undoubtedly kings ruled over 
the Romans for a time, yet "the stories told in later times re- 
specting the kings, their names and doings are quite unworthy 
of credit. They rest upon no contemporary evidence or sure 
tradition. . . they are laden with other improbabilities which 
prove them to be the fruit of the imagination. They contain 
impossibilities in chronology." On the other hand, the legends 
give us certain reliable facts, as, for example, that the Sabines 
invaded Latium and confederated with the Romans in one 
state. "The tradition of a doubling of the Senate and of the 



two kings, Romulus and Tatius, although not in a literal form 
historical, is believed to be a reminiscence of this union." 

Adopting 753 B. C, as the date of the founding of Rome, 
a glance over the nations will show what stage had been 
reached in the history and civilization of the great states when 
Rome began her life. By consulting the chart system the stu- 
dent can quickly see what point had been reached in Egyptian 
life and development when Rome appeared; what was the 
historic period and what were the ruling ideas in China and 
India ; that the Jews had been a divided monarchy for nearly 
two hundred years, and Israel, the northern kingdom, was 
within thirty-one years of its extinction; the advancement 
being made in Assyria in the fortunes of the state and the de- 
velopment of architecture and art ; and the closing century of 
the old Babylonian Empire and the preparation of the first 
great world-power; that Greece was in her formative period, 
the Spartans gaining control of the Peloponnesus. A survey 
of these contemporaneous events will show the existing con- 
ditions in the world when Rome appeared, and during her 
development what states must rise and fall before she should 
come to her world-dominion. Orientalism as represented by 
the civilization of Babylon and Persia had not yet arisen. The 
Golden Age of Athens was nearly 300 years in the future. By 
the time that Rome emerged from the kingdom period and the 
Republic was established, Babylon had passed through her 
mighty conquests and had fallen, Persia was the dominant 
state and in conflict with Greece; Sparta was supreme in the 
Peloponnesus and Athens in Middle Greece. 



ANCIENT ERA. 



63 



Rome was under Patrican rule, holding the common peo- 
ple under oppression. At the moment that the Grecian dem- 
ocracy was established the plebeians were struggling for free- 
dom in Rome. The expulsion of the kings (509 B.C.) closed 
the first period of Roman history and was the dawn of a 
new era. 

Questions and Topics for Study. 

1. The geographical conditions of Italy that were calculated 
to make its history different from that of Greece. West's 
Ancient History, pp. 249-50, 254-56; Freeman's Historical 
Geography of Europe, Vol. I, 7-9, 43-49; Mommsen's History 
of Rome, Vol. I, chs. i-ii. 

2. Who were the early inhabitants of Rome? 

3. What is the story of the founding of Rome? 

4. With whom did the Romans unite to form one nation ? 

5. What were the two great classes in Rome, and how were 
they distinguished from each other? 

6. By whom was the first Roman constitution framed, and 
what were its chief provisions? 

7. How was the Comitia Curiata formed and what were 
its three distinct powers? 

8. What was the function of the Senate? 

9. What were the powers and rights of the king? 

10. How was the reign of each of the Seven Kings dis- 
tinguished, and who was the greatest of the kings? 

11. The Roman Forum. History of All Nations, Vol. IV, 
52, 100. The Circus Maximus, History of All Nations, Vol. 



IV, 52, 128. The Cloaca Maxima, History of All Nations, 
Vol. IV, 51. 

The Roman Republic. 

This period of Roman history extends from 509 to 31 B. 
C. It is a period of great importance not only in Roman his- 
tory, but that of the whole world. It exhibits the mighty on- 
ward movement of this great state, its territorial expansion 
and governmental development. From this time on we shall 
be able to see, in the unfolding of Roman life and institutions, 
the difference between the Roman character and the Grecian. 
We shall see that while Greece stands for art and culture, 
Rome stands for law and organization. It is the period estab- 
lishing the supremacy of the State and that is to hold such a 
pre-eminent place throughout Roman history, and that is to 
give Rome its distinctive place in the world. During this ex- 
tended period Athens reached the zenith of her glory, passed 
through the Peloponnesian Wars, fell into decline, was brought 
under Sparta and Thebes. Alexander has achieved his mighty 
conquests and carried Grecian civilization everywhere. His 
empire has disintegrated and passed into the hands of his 
generals. And towards the close of the Roman Republic 
Greece becomes a Roman province. During this period two 
great empires, Persia and the empire of Alexander, are 
brought to an end. Thus in these great world-changes the 
race passed from stage to stage in its historic evolution. 
But we should be careful to note that it is man himself that 
is operative, giving expression to his unfolding life in these 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



great revolutions and creating new states to the death of 
others in seeking his larger self-realization. To fail to prop- 
erly understand this vital fact is to miss the meaning of his- 
toric movements and the fundamental significance of life 
itself. All that the history of Greece means to us is the dif- 
ference between what man was in the lower station in Orien- 
talism and the manhood to which he has attained under new 
conditions. In Rome a new phase of his nature is exhibited. 
It is the same man — the one human race — constituted with 
certain intellectual, moral and spiritual powers exactly the 
same in kind whether we find him in Egypt, Babylonia, Greece 
or Rome. The race is a unit and history is the same, whose 
function is to set forth or register this growing man or the 
development of his nature and possibilities. 

/. The Struggle for Liberty. 

Nearly a century before the opening of this period Solon in 
Athens had framed his constitution that opened the way for 
Grecian democracy, and about the close of the century Clis- 
thenes consummated it by his reforms. A few years later in 
Rome, the plebeians suffering under the oppression of the 
patricans, seceded and planned to set up a government of their 
own. At the solicitation of the patricians they agreed to re- 
turn on three conditions, the last of which that two plebeians 
should be elected yearly by the people, called Tribunes, for 
the purpose of protecting their interests and securing to them 
their legal rights, marked a forward step in Roman legisla- 



tion. The common people attained to representation in the 
government and thus with the Republic we have a new form 
of state. 

Under these conditions, the continued struggle between 
patrician and plebeian, laws were formulated. The first the 
Agrarian Laws dealing with public lands in the protection 
of plebeian rights. Arnold declares that to these laws "Rome 
owed all her future greatness." Then followed in 471 B. C. 
the Publilian Law in which the number of tribunes was raised 
to five. When the patricians attempted to thwart the purpose 
of this law by controlling unjustly the votes of the Assembly, 
the tribunes demanded such constitutional changes which 
would secure justice to both classes, and in the working out of 
the same the decemvirate was created. A committee was sent 
to Greece to study the Grecian laws and to see how the laws 
of Solon might contribute to their new legal structure. Thus 
the influence of the Grecian democracy in the formation of the 
Roman Republic. Ten Tables were prepared, and to these 
were added two tables by the second decemvirs, and thus was 
constituted the Twelve Tables of the Law, the first systematic 
written statement of Roman law, and which Livy declared 
to be "the foundation of all law, both public and private." 
The Roman State stands for law, and it is a matter of first 
importance that we understand the beginning of her system 
and the conditions under which it was created. It was not a 
cause but a result, the result of an awakening to a larger sense 
of liberty and justice. 



ANCIENT ERA. 



65 



II. Expansion and Consolidation. 

The Roman domain had an area about equal to that of 
Rhode Island at the beginning of the fourth century B. C. 
By 269 B. C, all Italy was included in her dominion and the 
Greek cities ceased their resistance. These conquests began 
with the taking of Veii, from which time dates the establish- 
ment of a paid standing army. Rome was sacked by the Gauls 
and rebuilt, but in the conditions brought about it looked 
serious for Roman advancement and the rights and liberties 
of the plebeians. At this moment arose a tribune, Licinius, 
who altered the course of Rome and the fate of the world by 
what is known as the Licinian Laws, opening the way for the 
plebeians to hold the office of consul, remedying existing 
abuses, and making the plebeians eligible to the office of dic- 
tator, to the censorship, the prsetorship and priesthood. All 
of these offices were opened by 300 B. C. Then followed the 
series of conquests by the Samnite and Latin wars and war 
with Pyrrhus, the latter being "the first trial of strength be- 
tween Macedonized Greece and Rome," and ending in the ex- 
pansion of the Roman domains. 

The wisdom of Rome was manifested in halting in her work 
of conquest and adding to her dominion more territory until 
she had consolidated Italy into a homogenous state and a cen- 
tral government. This unification was secured principally 
by five means: "She established colonies in the conquered 
territory; she formed a public land policy; she adopted a 
comprehensive military system;" she built military roads, and 
she organized a navy." 



///. The Punic Wars. 

Carthage was founded by the Phoenicians about 850 B. C, 
as we noted in a former study. She was the leading city of 
the Mediterranean, and sustained colonies in Sicily, Africa 
and Spain. Her genius was commercial not military, while 
the Roman genius was for conquest and government. Car- 
thage was her great rival in commerce and she decided to 
seize this territory and add it to her dominion. 



1. The First Punic War, 264-241 B. C. 

Sicily, for the possession of which the Greeks and Cartha- 
ginians had contended over a century before this time, was 
the occasion of this war. It issued in the defeat of Carthage 
and the taking over by Rome of Sicily and the islands between 
it and Italy. Thus a fourth class was added to the Roman 
Domain — subjects occupying conquered territory. Such ter- 
ritory outside of Italy was called a province. 



2. The Second Punic War, 218-201 B. C. 

Having lost territory Carthage set out to find new territory 
in Spain. Hannibal seized Saguntum, a Greek city, and this 
being a Roman ally was the occasion of the second war with 
Carthage. The invasion of Italy by Hannibal brought disaster 
to Rome, but at Zama he met his first defeat. But it ended 
the war and brought Carthage under a heavy indemnity. 



66 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



3. The Third Punic War, 149-146 B. C. 

The kingdom of Numidia, west of Carthage, became the oc- 
casion of this war. In her attempt to save her territory from 
the king of Numidia Carthage was provoked to war, which 
Rome declared to be a violation of the treaty with her and was 
glad of the excuse to take up arms against her. The city was 
completely destroyed and the territory became a Roman prov- 
ince the same year that Greece became a province. 

Following these wars was the conquest of Spain and the 
East, organizing the territory in Asia Minor as the Kingdom 
of Asia. 

Thus in this period of 131 years, from the consolidation of 
Italy and the beginning of these conflicts, we see the large 
amount of territory brought into submission to Rome and 
placed under her governmental control. These conquests made 
it necessary for Rome to organize governments for the new 
provinces. Alexander brought to his new subjects Grecian 
civilization; Rome brought legislation. 

Questions and Topics for Study. 

1. What oppressions incited the secession of the Plebeians? 
In what manner would such a secession have affected the Ro- 
man State? 

2. What was the primary object of the Agrarian Laws? 

3. In what way was the Publilian Law calculated to benefit 
the plebeians? 

4. With what matters did the Twelve Tables mainly deal? 



5. The Roman Constitution. Tighe's Development of the 
Roman Constitution, ch. v. Granrud's Roman Constitutional 
History. 

6. What were the duties of Censors and Questors, and what 
did the patricians expect to gain by these offices? 

7. Position of the plebeian in the State. Mommsen's His- 
tory, Vol. I, 109-114; Ihne's Early Rome, 114-116. 

8. What were the chief provisions of the Licinian Law? 

9. What occasioned the Samnite and Latin wars? 

10. The conquest of Italy. Pelham's Outlines of Roman 
History, 68-97. History of All Nations, Vol. IV, I24f, 132. 

11. What were the provisions in the formation of Roman 
colonies, and how were they distinguished from the Latin 
colonies? 

12. The Roman military system. West's Ancient History, 
310-312. 

13. Was the destruction of Carthage necessary to Roman 
interests ? 

14. Hannibal. Morris' Hannibal (Heroes of the Nations 
series). 

IV. Fall of the Republic, 133-31 B. C. 

We come to the closing century of the Republic, an era of 
revolution and internal strife. The remarkable thing is that 
with their arms turned against one another the work of con- 
quest still continued. While the distinction between patricians 
and plebeians no longer existed the lower class rapidly in- 



ANCIENT ERA. 



67 



creased. "The gulf between the poor and the rich was con- 
stantly widening. The last Italian colony was sent out in 
177 B. C, and the lands of Italy were all taken up. Slaves 
furnished labor at the cost of their bare subsistence. It was 
hard for a poor man to gain a living. Had the Licinian Laws 
been carried out, the situation would have been different. The 
public lands were occupied by the members of some forty or 
fifty aristocratic families, and by a certain number of wealthy 
Italians. A great proletariate — a needy and disaffected lower 
class — was growing up, which boded no good to the state." 
During the last two centuries of the Republic the Senate held 
the supreme place in the State, and with the increase of its 
power came the declension of the comitia curiata, comitia 
centuriata and comitia tributa. The closing century of the 
Republic falls into four periods: 

1. The Gracchi. 

The condition of the poor as noted above led Tiberius 
Gracchus to propose his Agrarian Laws. His measures in 
behalf of the oppressed cost him his life. His brother Gaius 
proposed measures of a much more radical nature. Disorders 
resulted and he too was slain by the optimates. The one 
measure that continued to exist, the cheap sale of corn, was 
the most unwise of his laws. 

2. Marius and Sulla. 

The removal of the Gracchi relieved the restraint upon the 
Senate, which now committed itself to a policy of oppression 



and tyranny that had not been exceeded at any time in the 
history of Rome, and it found expression in the Jugurthine 
War, in which Marius and Sulla participated. 

This was followed by the Social or Italian War, 90-88 B. C. 
The slaying of Drusus for proposing that the allies of Rome 
be admitted to citizenship led the allies to revolt, and it was 
only by the action of the State in offering citizenship to those 
who would lay down their arms and those who had not joined 
the revolution that probably saved Rome from the most dis- 
astrous results. 

Then followed the Mithridatic War, which placed in 
jeopardy the Roman dominions in the East. 

3. Caesar and the First Triumvirate. 

The tribunes were restored to power by Pompey and piracy 
swept from the seas. Given command of the Asiatic army, 
within the space of five years he crushed the king of Pontus 
and conquered Asia Minor, Syria, Phoenicia and Judaea. 

It was during this time that the state was endangered by 
Catiline's conspiracy to overthrow the government. It was 
the consul Cicero who detected the plot and crushed it by the 
four orations against Catiline, delivered before the Senate and 
the people. For this service the Senate conferred upon him 
the title of Father of his Country. 

Julius Caesar was the nephew of the wife of Marius and the 
father-in-law of Pompey. He held various offices in the State, 
and in 60 B. C, formed with Crassus and Pompey the first 



68 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



triumvirate. He then undertook the conquest of Gaul, "and 
laid a foundation for a military reputation which has endured 
to the present time." He crossed the Rhine and defeated the 
Germans, and in 55-54 B. C. he entered Britain and conquered 
portions of the south. 

His quarrel with Pompey resulted in his becoming the abso- 
lute ruler of Rome and being made Dictator by the Senate. 
"He saw that the world could no longer be governed by the 
Roman rabble and that monarchy was the only alternative. 
He ruled under the form of the old constitution. The whole 
tendency of his measures, which were mostly of a very whole- 
some character, was not only to remedy abuses of administra- 
tion, but to found a system of orderly administration in which 
Rome should be not the sole mistress, but simply the capital, 
of the world-wide community which had been subjected to 
her authority. . . . Being raised to the supreme power, he 
sought to rule according to the wise and liberal ideas which 
were suggested by the actual condition of the world, and the 
undesirableness of a continued domination of a single city, 
with such a populace as that of Rome. Before he could carry 
out his large scheme he was cut down." 

The only way by which the jealous nobles could again be 
enriched by the spoils that attended the old order of tyranny 
and misrule was that Caesar and his administration should 
cease to exist. Others were actuated by more patriotic senti- 
ments and regarded the assassination of Caesar as a benefit to 
the State, but failed to see its ultimate effect. 



4. Antony, Octavius and Second Triumvirate. 

Provinces were given to the leading conspirators by the 
Senate, Brutus receiving Cisalpine Gaul. Securing the popu- 
lar favor Antony proceeded to take this province by force, and 
Cicero delivered against him a series of Philippics. Octavius, 
the grand-nephew of Caesar, came to Rome and a second tri- 
umvirate was formed by Octavius, Antony and Lepidus to 
continue for five years. Many of the enemies of these three, 
among them Cicero, were put to death. At Philippi Brutus 
and Cassius were defeated by Antony and Octavius, and be- 
tween the members of the triumvirate the world was divided. 
Then followed the infatuation of Antony by Cleopatra. War 
was declared against Egypt. The battle of Actium decided the 
issue in favor of Octavius, Antony and Cleopatra committed 
suicide, and Egypt became a Roman province. 

We have given this brief sketch of the Roman Republic to 
distinguish the historical movement and the relation of the 
various periods to one another, to set forth the development 
of the Roman system and to see how she came to her world- 
wide dominion. Three things have plainly appeared: First, 
the processes by which the legislative system was constructed 
and the ruling idea of this state. Second, in becoming the 
mistress of the world by extensive conquests, the manner in 
which her governmental system was applied to the conquered 
territories. Third, how that avarice, luxury, jealousy, cor- 
ruption, tyranny and internal strife robbed the Republic of 



ANCIENT ERA. 



its power, rendered it incapable of ruling a world and bring- 
ing it to an end. 

Questions and Topics for Study. 

1. Over how much territory did the Roman government 
extend at the close of the Punic Wars? 

2. The Roman provincial system. Arnold's Roman System 
of Provincial Administration. 

3. What were the chief measures proposed by the Gracchi? 

4. What was the effect of conquest on the Roman Republic ? 
See Pelham's Outlines, bk. iii, ch. iii. 

5. How did the Jugurthine War express the corruption of 
the Roman Senate? 

6. What was the general state of things at the close of the 
period of Marius and Sulla? 

7. Marius and Sulla. Plutarch's Lives. 

8. Cicero's statesmanship. Davidson's Cicero and the Fall 
of the Roman Republic. Trollope's Life of Cicero. 

9. Caesar's campaigns. Casar's Commentaries. 

10. What precipitated the quarrel between Caesar and 
Pompey ? 

11. Whose cause did Caesar espouse in Egypt? 

12. What was Cato's opposition to Caesar, and how did it 
issue ? 

13. State some of the leading reform measures of Caesar. 
Was he a greater statesman than a soldier? 

14. The character of Caesar. Froude's Ccesar. Plutarch's 



Ccesar. Mommsen's History, Vol. V, 441-442, a famous pas- 
sage. 

15. Was Caesar a greater statesman than Alexander? 

16. Was there a common purpose among the three men of 
the second triumvirate? 

17. What were the chief causes of the fall of the Republic? 

The Roman Empire. 

During this period of over four centuries of this Roman- 
Hellenic monarchy Rome is to exercise her mighty power in 
the consummation of her mission and in bringing antiquity to 
its close. As a world-power "the Roman Empire extended 
from the Atlantic to the Euphrates, a distance of more than 
three thousand miles, and from the Danube and the English 
Channel — later from the friths of Scotland — to the cataracts 
of the Nile and the African desert. Its population was some- 
where from eighty millions to one hundred and twenty mil- 
lions. It was composed of the East and the West, a distinc- 
tion that was not simply geographical, but included deeper 
characteristic differences. . . . Over all the Empire extended 
the system of Roman law, the rights and immunities of which 
belonged to Roman citizens everywhere." It was by this ex- 
tension of Empire that Grecian culture became the common 
property of the nations, and thus the two great civilizations 
carried their joint influence to the world at large. 

When Augustus became Imperator the people were ready 
for peace after all the devastations of civil warfare. All the 



7o 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



functions of authority were vested in him while there was an 
adherence to republican principles. The history of the Em- 
pire falls into four periods : 

I. Expansion. From Augustus to Trajan. 

This period extends from 27 B.C. to 117 A. D. It was 
when all the world was at peace in the reign of Augustus that 
Jesus Christ, the Prince of Peace, was born. The Messianic 
line having its origin in Seth and appearing from time to time 
in its representative heads such as Noah and Shem, and 
reaching its national distinction in Abraham and the Hebrew 
nation, and finally in the royal family of David, has at last 
issued in the long looked-for Prophet, the "Coming One," the 
seed of the woman of Gen. iii: 15. It was at the beginning of 
the Roman Empire that should occur the event destined to 
exert the most profound influence upon all future time. From 
the fall of Babylon and the restoration of the Jew from captiv- 
ity, that race has been passing through the world. Empires dis- 
seminating the seeds of their religion, and preparing the na- 
tions by the circulation of the truths of the Old Testament for 
the advent of the Messiah. 

Cyrus had placed this race back in their own land and gave 
them the opportunity of re-establishing their religious life, so 
that when Christ came to the world it was in the midst of 
those religious institutions, in the full force of their organiza- 
tion, that related to His own claims as the fulfillment of Jew- 
ish law and prophecy. During the reign of Tiberius and un- 



der the propraetorship of Pontius Pilate He was crucified, but 
He had won many disciples and had for three years trained 
Twelve Apostles in the principles of His Kingdom, and finally 
leaving them, commissioned them to go into all the world, and 
by the truths and doctrines He had announced to bring the 
whole race into His Kingdom of love and grace. 

The introduction of Christianity into the world was a new 
and mighty force to be brought into conflict with the Roman 
State, that was to pass through centuries of persecution, but 
in the end to rise triumphantly above Paganism and sit upon 
the Roman throne. The new religion grew and spread 
throughout the Empire. "The union of all the nations in the 
Roman Empire had lessened the mutual antipathy of peoples, 
melted down barriers of feeling as well as of intercourse, and 
weakened the pride of race. An indistinct sense of a common 
humanity had entered the breasts of men." This fact, to- 
gether with the manner in which the Jews had carried their 
pure monotheism throughout the Empire and towards which 
there was a drift in religion, and the other important fact that 
"the old mythological religion was decaying, and traditional 
beliefs as to divine things were dissolving" and a general 
yearning for something to fill the void more substantial and 
satisfying, all prepared the way for the progress of Chris- 
tianity. At no time in the history of the world did the neces- 
sary conditions exist favorable to the claims and establish- 
ment of such a religion as at this time. The race had been led 
from plane to plane, from the materialism of Orientalism to 
the intellectualism of Hellenism and Socialism of Rome. 



ANCIENT ERA. 



71 



Thus man had been exhibited by great historic processes and 
developments in these fundamental types of his complex con- 
stitution. But he is constitutionally religious as well as so- 
cial or intellectual and no great state has solved for him this 
problem or satisfied the deepest yearnings of his spiritual 
nature. And after Rome there is no great state to bring to 
the task and such a task could not be undertaken or accom- 
plished by any state. It remained for One to appear and in- 
troduce the Spiritual Kingdom as Rome did the Social King- 
dom and Greece the Intellectual, to announce its universal 
principles, create a Church and commission it to present to 
humanity the solution of its last great problem in terms of 
the union of the human with the Divine order. 

The missionary journeys of the Apostle Paul spread the 
Gospel and planted churches. He then set out for Macedonia. 
The wind wafts them over the waters, that five hundred years 
before had borne on their bosom the magnificent armada of 
Xerxes. These four humble men in the Trojan ship are to 
accomplish what the millions of Xerxes failed to accomplish — 
to conquer not only Greece, but all Europe. When falsely ac- 
cused at Jerusalem it was only necessary for Paul, the Roman 
citizen, to say, "I appeal to Caesar," to bring the principles of 
the new religion to the capital of the world. 

It was under Nero in connection with the burning of Rome 
for which the Christians were most falsely accused that per- 
secution of the new sect was instituted to be prosecuted for 
many decades under other emperors. Into the extermination 
of the new religion Rome threw all her mighty power. 



Paganism drew upon every resource of cruelty and torture 
and without resistance the blood of the Christians flowed like 
water. It was the greatest conflict between power and prin- 
ciple the world has ever witnessed. Never was such an at- 
tempt made to stamp out by methods so cruel and relentless 
a helpless people, and never did any attempt meet with so 
ignominious a failure. 

//. Prosperity from Hadrian to Aurelius. 

This period extends from 117 to 180 A. D. Under Hadrian 
literature, art and architecture were given a great impulse. 
He chose as his successor Antoninus Pius, a man of worthy 
character. He extended the power of Rome in Britain and 
protected the Christians. Marcus Aurelius the Stoic was one 
of the best Emperors of Rome. "As his writings breathe a 
spirit which lacks little of being Christian, it is fair to sup- 
pose that his persecution of Christians was due to his mis- 
apprehension of their creed and character." 

III. Decline. From Commodus to Diocletian. 

This period extends from 180 to 305 A. D. Having reached 
the height of its prosperity under the last emperors the Em- 
pire now began to decline. This period began with Commo- 
dus, which was filled with crime and corruption, passed 
through the period of the Barrack Emperors, and ended with 
Diocletian. Under the last emperor the Empire became an 
absolute monarchy. By him the Empire was divided for gov- 



72 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



ernmental purposes, giving the rule of the West to Maximian, 
while he took care of the East, but retaining the supreme 
authority. 

IV. Last Days of the Empire. 

i. Constantine the Great, 306-337 A. D. 

Six rivals struggled for the throne. With the accession of 
Constantine a new Rome appeared. Paganism realized its 
inability to crush Christianity, and discovered in itself a de- 
cayed religion incapable of satisfying the religious life. The 
conversion of the emperor to Christianity brought the long 
contest to a close, and the battle of the Milvian Bridge settled 
the issue forever. Christianity now became the State religion, 
and at Nicsea (325 A. D.) was formulated the Nicene Creed, 
at the first General Council of the Church. 

Constantine then undertook the reorganization of the gov- 
ernment, making Byzantium (Constantinople) the center of 
government. The Empire was next separated into four great 
divisions, and with other subdivisions "Constantine's govern- 
ment formed a model, not only for Charlemagne and his suc- 
cessors, but for all the sovereigns of Modern Europe." 

2. From Julian the Apostate to Theodosius the Great, 361- 
395 A.D. 

Julian attempted the restoration of paganism by abolishing 
Christianity. The latter was restored by Jovian. During the 
reign of Valentinian and Valens occurred the invasion of the 



Goths. Under Theodosius the Visigoths were conquered and 
made his allies. He reunited and ruled over as sole monarch 
the Eastern and Western Empires, which continued, however, 
only during his reign. 

3. The Fall of the Western Empire. 

Now began the invasion of the Visigoths (402 A. D.), the 
sacking of Rome, the capturing of Rome by the Vandals, and 
the invasion of Britain by the Saxons when the Roman troops 
were withdrawn to resist the Goths, Huns and Vandals. 

The Empire that once had extended over the world was 
now reduced in extent to the first conquests of the Republic in 
Italy. From the time that Britain was surrendered to the 
barbarians (411 A. D.) it might be said that the Western Em- 
pire had passed away, but when Odoacer was granted permis- 
sion by Zeno, the Eastern Emperor, to rule Italy as patrician 
(476 A. D.) the Western Empire had ceased to exist. 

Questions and Topics for Study. 

1. The gaining of absolute power by Augustus. Tacitus, 
Annals, i, 2. Firth's Augustus Cwsar. 

2. What was the character of Tiberius, and how was his 
reign characterized? 

3. What were the moral conditions under which Nero was 
reared? What were some of the crimes that have made him 
notorious ? 



ANCIENT ERA. 



73 



4. If Nero ordered the burning of Rome, what was his 
motive ? 

5. Christianity in the Roman Empire. Uhlhorn's Conflict 
of Christianity with Paganism, a work of unusual merit. 
Pliny's letter to Trajan and Trajan's reply. 

6. Who were the Flavian Emperors? Note the special 
events of their reigns. 

7. What was Trajan's distinction as a statesman? 

8. Who are frequently called the "five good emperors?" 

9. Marcus Aurelius' Meditations, Long's translation, ex- 
hibiting one of the noblest souls of antiquity. 

10. By what means did the Barrack Emperors gain their 
elevation? How many were there? 

11. What are the facts concerning Zenobia? See Gibbon's 
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 

12. In the division of the Empire by Diocletian how was it 
portioned and to whom? 

13. By what achievements did Constantine become sole ruler 
of the Empire? 

14. The Council of Nicaea. Stanley's Lectures on the His- 
tory of the Eastern Church. 

15. Constantinople and Constantine's government. Gib- 
bon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. xvii. 

16. How did the Goths come into Roman territory, and 
what led to their taking up arms against Rome? 



Roman Civilization. 

It is not necessary to our purpose to devote much space to 
this phase of our study. The chart gives an outline of the 
leading facts. 

1. Government. 

Our study of the historical movement has distinguished the 
Roman development and her governmental principles during 
the Republican and Imperial periods. Obedience to authority 
was the basis of Roman character. "This habit of obedience, 
this reverence for authority, was the one quality which, per- 
haps, had most to do with making Roman influence so mighty 
in the history of the world." This authority was centralized 
in the Roman State, hence the difference between the Roman 
in his respect for authority and the Greek whose government 
represented no such centralization. Obedience to the law did 
not relate simply to the subject; it was equally binding on 
rulers. 

Republican government failed for want of a centralized 
form of government. Hence the establishment of the Empire 
by Augustus, following Caesar's attempts at centralization, 
saved the Roman State. Says Merivale: "The establishment 
of the Roman Empire was, after all, the greatest political work 
that any human being ever wrought. The achievements of 
Alexander, of Caesar, of Charlemagne, of Napoleon, are not 
to be compared with it for a moment." 



74 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



2. Roman Art. 

In Roman architecture there is little that is original. The 
three orders were borrowed from the Greeks who possessed 
aesthetic tendencies foreign to the Roman. The same was true 
of sculpture and painting. The conquest of Greece brought 
many of her artists to Rome whose influence was responsible 
for the finest Roman statuary. Under this influence arose a 
form of sculpture that was peculiarly Roman. "The practical 
tendency of the Roman character showed itself in this. In- 
stead of creating ideal forms of beauty, the Roman sculptors 
produced portrait statues." 

3. Literature. 

What was said of originality in art is equally true of liter- 
ature when compared with the Grecian. Their special service 
lay in the fact that they preserved the literary treasures of 
that more highly gifted nation. Cato, the father of Latin 
prose, "was the first thoroughly national author and was by 
far the most original writer Rome ever produced — the one 
man on whose vigorous mind no outside influence ever told." 
Cicero had every opportunity to become proficient in literary 
pursuits, and the use of them fitted him to take his high place, 
if not the highest in Roman literature. Of Julius Caesar it is 
said that he "has probably made a deeper impression upon 
humanity than any other man that has ever lived." As an 
orator he was surpassed only by Cicero. He is best known to 
us as a historian, and in his Commentaries we see him at his 



best. But few Roman writers escaped the influence of Greek 
thought and form. Lucretius was one of the exceptions in 
maintaining an independence, and refusing to be carried by 
this Grecian literary current. He "is the only Roman in whom 
the love of speculative truth prevails over every other feeling." 
Vergil has been called the most representative of the Roman 
poets, while Horace has been styled the most original. We 
give a passing notice to one more writer. Tacitus held mili- 
tary offices under three of the emperors. It is said of him 
that he had this great advantage over the historian Livy, that 
he helped to make history as well as relate it. He "ranks 
among the greatest historians of all time." So little is said 
of Jesus Christ in contemporaneous history, and so much em- 
phasis has been laid upon the statement of Tacitus that we 
quote the passage: 

"So, for the quieting of this rumor. . . . Nero judicially 
charged with the crime, and punished with most studied se- 
verities, that class, hated for their general wickedness, whom 
the vulgar called Christians. The originator of that name was 
one Christ, who, in the reign of Tiberius, suffered death by 
sentence of the procurator, Pontius Pilate." 

The Social Order. 

The student has already discovered what was the dominant 
fact of the Roman State and the great difference between the 
Roman and the Grecian. They sprang from the same an- 
cestry, but in natural traits were distinctly unlike. We have 



ANCIENT ERA. 



75 



noted the lack of originality in the Roman in literary and 
artistic interests, and in their lack of ideality were imitators 
of the Greeks. "The Greeks had more genius; the Romans 
more stability. They had less delicacy of perception, but they 
had more sobriety of character and more endurance. They 
were a disciplined people; and in their capacity for discipline 
lay the secret of their supremacy in arms and of their ability 
to give law to the world. If they produced a much less num- 
ber of great men than the Greeks, there was more widely 
diffused among Roman citizens a conscious dignity and 
strength. Versatility belonged to the Greek; virility to the 
Roman. Above all, the sense of right and of justice was 
stronger among the Romans. They had, in an eminent de- 
gree, the political instinct, the capacity for governing, and for 
building up a political system on a firm basis. The noblest 
product of the Latin mind is the Roman law, which is the 
foundation of almost all modern codes." 

This statement distinguishes clearly the place of Rome in 
human history, his ruling idea and his contribution to the 
progress of the race. At the beginning of this study the 
question was what new development would be secured through 
the last universal empire that had not come by the other three. 
In the hands of Greece the human intellect and emotions came 
to exalted appreciations in the realm of the mental. A new 
life appeared in the awakening to life the deep faculties of 
the soul. But Rome came forward to call into life another 
being within — the Social being. Thus there has been a steady 
progressive unfolding of human character by these world em- 



pires. The Roman idea was the race under Law, the su- 
premacy of the State. The race is constituted with social 
impulses and necessities as well as with intellectual and 
aesthetic. It is a large side of our nature. It must learn the 
significance of law, justice, right, obedience, government and 
social unity and organization. Every fundamental movement 
of the Roman State contributed to the social evolution of man. 
She kept alive the creations of Greece and carried them for- 
ward with her own ideals. They kept the Roman, in the stern- 
ness and rigidity of his nature, which might easily have been 
perverted to the most insufferable cruelty, tempered and 
softened. 

Just as the conquests of Alexander became the means of 
planting Grecian civilization in every soil, so the sweeping con- 
quests of Rome brought the world under its ruling ideas. Her 
government was established everywhere. Obedience to the 
State was supreme. Respect for law was inculcated. Rome 
drew the nations together into a social union, and gathered 
about her feet as a father would gather his children, taught 
them the principles of the social order. From that time on- 
ward the world was destined to be a different world, a world 
living under organized social conditions with the fundamental 
elements of its legislative systems provided. Not only then 
did Rome call forth the new nature, it ministered to it in sub- 
stantial social correlatives. "In this great empire was gath- 
ered up the sum total that remained of the religions, laws, 
customs, languages, letters, arts and sciences of all the na- 
tions of antiquity which had successively held sway or pre- 



7 6 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



dominance. Under the system of Roman government and 
Roman law they were combined in one ordered community. 
It was out of the wreck of the ancient Roman Empire that the 
modern European nations were formed. Their likeness to 
one another, their bond of fellowship, is due to the heritage of 
laws, customs, letters, religion, which they have received in 
common from Rome." 

In closing our studies in these universal States we have 
raised the question as to what was to follow, in what new way 
was human nature in its basic conditions to be enfolded and 
ministered to. In our discussion of Christianity in the Roman 
State we suggested an answer to that question which might, 
as heretofore, be raised at the close of this study. Just as 
Rome appeared in the world and moved on to strength and 
greatness while other great universal states were developing 
the human order, so Christianity, the next great universal- 
izing power appeared in the midst of the mighty Roman Em- 
pire and laid hold of its very life to lift itself to dominance 



within the state itself. And as Greece prepared the way for 
Rome, so the latter, in so many ways, prepared the way for 
the Spiritual Kingdom that no mere state could set up. Thus 
Christianity, appearing as it did, the exposition and correlative 
of the spiritual nature, is no more an accident in our historic 
development than were Greece and Rome. 

The intelligent, thoughtful student will fully appreciate the 
peculiar importance that attaches to the history of these uni- 
versal empires, and will see the sense in which they hold a 
significance in the development of the world-order as was not 
true of other states. 

The Chart. 

Note the first statement of the chart and its connection with 
the central fact. About this see how all the facts gather, and 
give it sufficient attention to be able to reproduce it without 
the aid of the chart. 



Medieval Sra Strom 476 to 1453 G.3). 



Qt the fall of the {Roman Smpire existed the elements that entered 
into medieval and modern civilizations 
Gharlemagne 



X.Strom the Stall of {Rome to & all of 



the Smpire of Gharlemagne. 814. 
1. {teutonic Stations. Sermon conquest 

of {Rome. Sermon kingdoms. 
2j5fhe tDark Ctge. Christianity and 

conquests of {Mohammedanism. 
3.Sastern {Roman Smpire. 

Justinian, 527-565, and his Gode. 

Sferaclius, 610-641. Victories. 

iconoclastic Controversy, 725-87. 



Sail of {Rome 

4t.Smpire of Gharlemagne, 
752-814. fflew succession 
of {Roman emperors, 
a. &i is government and 

administrative system, 
h. fitfis tfchools. 
diis reign secured 



G 



M.Sfrpm the Ifteaih of Gharlemagne to the Stall of 



Constantinople, 814-1453. 

St ranee 

1. {treaty of Verdun, 843. Gharles to Gapel, 875-987. 
2.e7rom Gapel to the end of the diundred ft/ears' Wai 

087-1453. Sarly Gapetians. JGouisWtoMouisX. 
fifermany 



1. {Kingdom founded by JGouis, 842-875. 

2. Strom Gharles the Stat to tihfenry, 882-936. 
3.cf truggle for Mothair, 855-806. 



rusades 



det 



Sfgll of Constantinople 



Wi 



Causes \ Sfoly {Roman Smpire 
Persecution of \\.{faxon and Stranconian emperors 0364125. 
Christian pilgrims\S. Strom {interregnum to Frederick, 1254-1452 
first Crusade. 1096- \ Sngland 

09. Jerusalem taken\l. Prior to dSbrman Conquest, t8.G.55-1066. 
Second Grusade,tt47-49.\2. Under dVorman ki ngs, 1066-1154. 
Sxpedition a failure. \3. Under Qngevin kings, 1154-1327. 
centralization of /{Third Grusade,118942.Under\4.3fundred ^fears' War, 1338-1453. 
government. / Strederick,tRichard, Philip. \ ©ther Suropean eflates 

d.jCiteraluret /Sfrom the fourth to the ninth \l.{fpain and Portugal, 1252-1458. 

theological, / Grusade,119B~i27l.6hildren's J lSi2\2.& r rowth of tfwiss independence, 
philosophical, /Palestine finally under {furkish rule.\3.<Denmark,dVbruray,&weden-union 
oiographical./{fnfluence of {faraeenic civilization \4utRussia founded under{Rurik,8B& 
upon Surope through the Crusades. \S.Surks take Constantinople, 14.^3, 



Chart 6 



MEDIEVAL ERA-FROM THE FALL OF ROME TO THE 
FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE 



It has been truly said that "Rome is the bridge which unites, 
while it separates, the ancient and the modern world." With 
the fall of the Roman Empire we enter a new era in the 
world's history. If we have gathered up the fundamental 
features of antiquity, have grasped the significance of the 
struggle towards unity, and the great general results of those 
early civilizations, we will then be intelligently prepared to 
take up and follow the historic thread through the next ten 
centuries. 

The new age inherits all the attempts of antiquity in the 
interpretation of life; all of its moral, religious, political and 
economic ideas. Great elements of civilization lie at hand for 
it to construct into new systems. Greece has given it a 
wealth of art, literature and philosophy. Rome has created a 
great social order. The Greek was the man of thought, the 
Roman was the man of action. And, as we have seen, at the 
fall of Rome a new and mighty force, destined to be the next 
universal force though of a different order, has come through 
struggle and conflict to establishment — Christianity. 

With all of these elements at hand it remains for the new 
age to fit the materials into a new structure. Here are the 
contributions of antiquity to future ages, contributions that 
required centuries to produce. What will the new age do with 
them? New conditions might be introduced changing the 
whole movement from the course we would expect to be na^ 



urally followed. But we must not forget the political state 
of things at the fall of Rome. What seems like utter dis- 
integration is often a groping in the dark, the race picking 
its way amid its limitations but working slowly towards the 
light. The hands may drop treasures carried away from the 
past to recover them again and gather up the thread of the 
historic movement. 

In such a transitional period it is for us to follow all the 
paths and see why they were taken and to what they lead. 
We shall see that what many times seemed abiding then was 
only provisional. It was the best they could do, but a real 
contribution to the better that was left for another age to 
discover. 

Before us lies the spectacle of the appearance of new great 
states. How did they arise? What conditions and principles 
were operative in their origin? Into what relations did they 
come with other states that carried all a step forward in the 
general order? These are the questions with which we shall 
deal as we fellow the course of Medieval events. 

From the Fall of Rome to the Fall of the Empire of 
Charlemagne. 

The study of the Middle Ages introduces us to a new people 
and new conditions. We find ourselves in the midst of new 



7') 



8o 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



customs and institutions. The Medieval Era falls into two 
periods, the first of which extends from the beginning of the 
new era to the fall of Charlemagne's Empire. Five things 
claim our attention. 

/. The Teutonic Kingdoms. 

In the medieval era two striking facts come to view. First 
the modification of the old society by the commingling of the 
Germanic peoples, and the influence of Roman civilization 
upon these nations. Second, the Christian Church surviving 
the Empire, the great social bond directing not only the re- 
ligious life but guiding in important respects the secular. 

The fall of the Roman Empire was brought about, not sud- 
denly, but by a gradual process. The army was recruited from 
the barbarians who learned from the Romans the art of war 
and at the same time were strengthened by training in military 
discipline. Whole settlements of these tribes became estab- 
lished within the empire, and at times bartered their military 
service for territory. Under such training and discipline, and 
developed by these Roman opportunities, many of the most 
efficient attained to high places in the army, and consequently 
exercised their influence and power in respect to the rulers. 
Another important fact tending to the same general result is 
"that most of the Germanic tribes were converts to Chris- 
tianity before they made their attacks and subverted the throne 
of the Caesars. In fine, there was a long preparation for the 
great onset of the barbarian peoples in the fifth century." It 



was this ability on the part of the German, possessed of 
strong intellectual and moral characteristics, to set aside his 
religion and adopt a new one, and to avail himself of the ele- 
ments of civilization developed by Rome that fitted him to 
become the conqueror of this people. 

On the other hand, we must look to the state of things at 
the heart of the Empire for the cause of its fall. If Rome 
had not came to a state of decay she would not have fallen 
under the hand of the barbarian. It was the internal condi- 
tion and not these external circumstances that determined the 
fall of the Empire. Civil war had greatly reduced the popu- 
lation of Italy and it was a difficult thing to maintain a strong 
army. Luxury had sapped the vitality of the people. Baths 
and feasts and other enervating conditions had rendered this 
people once so strong and virile weak and effeminate. Instead 
of keeping up their robust militia their wealth enabled them 
to hire foreigners to do their fighting. The Germans were 
the best soldiers, and in fighting Rome's battles came to com- 
manding positions in the Roman army. With such decaying 
and disintegrating conditions sapping the vitality of the peo- 
ple, and a strong warlike race coming into possession of the 
elements of strength that constituted the power of the State, 
it is easy to understand how the Empire came to ruin by a 
people to whom war and conquest was a delight. 

Six kingdoms were founded by the Germans. 

i. The kingdom of the Ostrogoths, having Ravenna for its 
capital. This kingdom came to an end in 553 when Justinian 
determined to seize Italy and Africa. 



MEDIEVAL ERA. 



81 



2. The kingdom of the Visigoths. These people occupied 
territory in Gaul from which they were expelled by the Franks 
in 507 A. D., and the kingdom was finally overthrown by the 
Saracens in 711 A. D. 

3. The kingdom of the Burgundians. They established 
their kingdom on the Rhone, and in 534 A. D., were con- 
quered by the Franks. 

4. The kingdom of the Lombards. They captured the city 
of Pavia in Italy, and in 568 A. D., had possession of almost 
the entire peninsula, which was held under their dominion for 
over two hundred years. In 774 A. D., they were subdued by 
Charles the Great. 

5. The kingdom of the Anglo-Saxons. After the Roman 
troops were withdrawn from Britain to defend Rome against 
her foes the island was taken by the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. 
In 827 A. D., Egbert, King of Wessex, brought all under his 
rule. 

6. The kingdom of the Franks. This was the greatest of 
the German kingdoms. The Merovingian Dynasty was 
founded by Meroveus, 451 A. D., which continued for 300 
years. It was overthrown 751 A. D., and the Carlovingian 
dynasty was established. 

//. Christianity mid the Church. 

In our study of Rome we gave some attention to the condi- 
tions under which Christianity appeared. We noted the oc- 
casion of the persecution of the Christians in the reign of 
Nero, and its continuance and the triumph at last of the new 



religion over paganism. Rome was disposed to be tolerant 
towards other religions that found their way into the Empire. 
Between these religions and Christianity, however, there was 
an essential difference. The latter affected the relation of the 
subject to the State in certain particulars. It taught that to 
follow the forms and indulge the liberties of the Roman re- 
ligion was a sin, and that the Emperor and State were not 
supreme. But the Roman religion was a national system and 
an essential part of the State, and it was by reverence for the 
emperor that he had gained such influence over his subjects. 
Hence this attitude to the state religion and the tendency to 
alter the distinction of the emperor brought about the perse- 
cution of the Christians and the attempt to exterminate their 
religion following the outburst of persecution and cruelty in 
the first instance under Nero. The strong hold that Chris- 
tianity was gaining throughout the Empire was bound to 
seriously affect the stability of Rome when we consider her 
religious position and principles. For Christianity to become 
supreme Rome could not remain the same Rome. In a com- 
paratively brief time after the resurrection of Christ and the 
dispersion of His disciples the Gospel was heralded every- 
where. Through the preaching of Paul and others, churches 
were being established and Christian doctrines widely diffused. 
Christians were holding offices of the State and were soldiers 
in the ranks. As one of the Roman writers declared they were 
filling the Empire and its official positions. Rome realized 
her danger and prosecuted under different emperors the work 
of extermination. 



82 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



We have already seen the futility of the attempts to up- 
root Christianity, and how at last after decades of patient 
suffering drawing against Rome no weapon but the truths of 
their system, paganism was vanquished, the Emperor became 
a Christian and Christianity became supreme in the State. 

We also have noted that in the breaking up of the Empire, 
Christianity not only survived, but that the Church became 
the great social bond of union directing the temporal as well 
as religious interests. Under this influence the Germans had 
come. Christendom arose, a single homogeneous society of 
peoples. "Power passed from the Empire to the Church. The 
Church was strong in its moral force. Its bishops commanded 
the respects of the barbarians. They were moral and social 
leaders. In the period of darkness and of tempest, the voices 
of the Christian clergy were heard in accents of fearless re- 
buke and of tender consolation. In the cities of Italy and 
Gaul, the bishops, at the call of the people, informally took the 
first place in civil affairs. The barbarians were awed by the 
kingdom of righteousness, which, without exerting force, op- 
posed to force and passion an undaunted front. They could 
not avoid feeling in some measure the softening and restrain- 
ing influence of Christian teaching, and learning the lessons 
of the cross. Socially, the Church, as such, was always on the 
side of peace, on the side of industry, on the side of purity, on 
the side of liberty for the slave, and protection for the op- 
pressed. The monasteries were the only keepers of literary 
traditions ; they were great agricultural colonies, clearing the 
wastes, and setting the example of improvement. They were 



the only seats of human labor which could hope to be spared 
in those lands of perpetual war." 

In the middle of the seventh century an alliance was estab- 
lished with the papacy by Pippin, the Frankish king, in which 
the pope attained the temporal sovereignty. 

It was in the fourth century that the Christian Church was 
deluged with corruption, and was the occasion of the estab- 
lishment of Monasticism by which many sought seclusion for 
their spiritual development. This subject is fully discussed 
in our next study, Institutions of the Middle Ages. 

What is of importance to us at this point of the historical 
movement is to grasp the significance of Christianity and the 
Church emerging from the wreck of the Empire and con- 
stituting a mighty force in the shaping of events. 

III. The Eastern Roman Empire. 

It will be remembered that Constantine established his cap- 
ital in Constantinople, thus creating the Eastern Empire. He 
had considered both Alexandria and Antioch, but they were 
not centrally located. He was the first Christian emperor and 
we can readily see the great importance that attaches to this 
shifting of his capital, and how his reign constitutes a turning 
point in the religious life of Europe. 

This empire comprised, under Arcadius (395-408 A. D.), 
Egypt, Northern Africa, Asia between the Mediterranean and 
the Euphrates, Greece, Macedonia, Thrace and Illyria. A 
deep interest in theological questions occupied the eastern 



MEDIEVAL ERA. 



83 



mind. In these the Grecian speculative tendency reveled. 
"Such questions as were raised by Nestorius respecting the 
two natures of the Saviour were debated even in the shops 
and the markets. The court meddled actively in these heated 
controversies, and was swayed to one party or the other by the 
theologians whom, for the time, it took into its favor. The 
emperors assumed the high prerogative of personally decid- 
ing in doctrinal disputes, and of dictating opinions to the 
clergy, who gradually lost their independence and became ab- 
jectly subservient to the imperial will." 

1. Justinian and his code. 

A new dynasty began with Justin I. His nephew, Justinian, 
become his successor (527-565), who was under the dom- 
inating influence of his wife. Following the time of Con- 
stantine this reign was the most brilliant period in Byzantine 
history. "Under his despotic rule the last vestiges of repub- 
lican administration were obliterated." 

His great service lay in his code of laws. Great codes had 
already preceded this, and codification of Roman laws was a 
familiar idea. There were the Twelve Tables, the Gregorian 
Code and Theodosian Code. Regarding the influence of the 
Justinian Code Adams remarks : "This law is still a part of 
the living and actual law of many modern nations. Owing 
to the French and Spanish colonial occupation, it became the 
law of a part of the territory now within the United States 
and forms the actual law of Louisiana in the code of 1824, 



which is English in language but Roman in law and technical 
expression. In consequence of its permanence in the Eastern 
Empire, this law was taken up by the Mohammedan states and 
became the most important source of their law, contributing, 
it is asserted, far more than the Koran to the legal system 
which now rules throughout the Mohammedan world." It 
forms the principal basis of law, not only with most of the 
European nations, but also Louisiana and the South American 
states of Spanish origin, and is regularly taught in the law 
schools of leading European states and of America. 

2. Heraclius, 610-641. 

Following the death of Justinian for one hundred and fifty 
years the Byzantine court was steeped in crime and corrup- 
tion, the conditions being improved only during the reign of 
Heraclius. In a series of campaigns he measured swords with 
Chosroes, King of Persia. These began in 622 A. D., and 
continued until 627. In the last conflict Heraclius met the 
Persian army not far from Arbela. In this historic spot, eight 
hundred and fifty years before, Persia was overthrown by 
Alexander, and the victory of Heraclius was no less decisive. 
"With the reign of Heraclius, the transient prosperity of the 
Greek Empire comes to an end. It was exhausted even by its 
victories. Overwhelmed with taxation, it was ruined in its 
trade and industry. Despotism in the rulers, sensuality and 
baseness in rulers and subjects undermined public and private 
virtue. In addition to other enemies on every side, it was 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



attacked by the Arabians, and Heraclius lived to see the loss 
of Syria and of Egypt and the capture of Alexandria by these 
new assailants." 

IV. Mohammedanism and Its Conquests. 

In the midst of this early period of the Medieval Era was 
born (572) one from whom should emanate a new order and 
influence destined to alter the course of history, and sustain 
an unusual position in the political situation of the present 
time. 

At the time of the birth of Mohammed, the religion of the 
Arabs had degraded into idolatry and indifference. Retiring 
to the desert or mountain for meditation he received a vision, 
we are told, from the Archangel Gabriel, who declared him to 
be the Prophet of God and founder of a new religion. The 
revelations which he said were committed to him are to be 
found in the Koran, the Mohammedan Bible, which contains 
elements of Judaism, Christianity and the Arabic religion. 
This compilation consisting of 114 chapters is utterly devoid 
of any systematic arrangement. "It has neither beginning, 
middle nor end," says Alzog, "it is a gathering of irregular 
scraps, indiscriminately put together." 

It is a monotheistic system opposing both the polytheism 
of the Greeks and Romans and the Christian doctrine of the 
Trinity. 

The plan of Mohammed after fleeing from Mecca was to 
unite the Arab tribes, and project a holy war by which 



idolaters would be conquered and crushed. These plans were 
put into operation, and in the midst of his victories he died 
in 632. The successors of the Prophet continued these con- 
quests and in twenty-one years had extended the rule of Islam 
over a territory equal to that of the Roman Empire. Their 
chief opponents were the Eastern Empire and Persia. From 
the former they snatched the sections in which Grecian civil- 
ization had not been deeply rooted, and conquered Persia. 
Nothing less than the conquest of the whole world and its con- 
version into a vast Moslem Empire was the design of Moham- 
medanism, and at the point of the sword it offered the Koran 
or death. "It was part of the Moslem plan that a Moham- 
medan tide rolling westward from Constantinople and one 
moving eastward from France should meet in mid-Europe. 
To German genius and valor we are indebted for checking 
both of these tides and saving Central and Western Europe 
from the dominance of Oriental civilization." At Tours (732 
A. D.) the Saracen leader, fresh from his conquest of Spain, 
met the German forces. Never before had they met such re- 
sistance as was now opposed to them by the sturdy Germans. 
The fleeing from the field of battle of the Moslems was a de- 
cisive moment in human history. "That one autumn after- 
noon made Christianity forever triumphant in Europe, and 
Charles Martel, the German king, became at once the hero 
of Christian civilization." For seven centuries to come the 
Saracens remained in Spain. 

To these Saracenic conquests the world owes much in mat- 
ters of civilization. They gathered the culture of the nations 



MEDIEVAL ERA. 



85 



and added their own original investigations in astronomy, 
chemistry and mathematics. "But the great debt which the 
world owes to Mohammedan culture is for its preservation, 
through the Dark Age, of the scientific works of Aristotle and 
other Greek authors. Thus, learning first returned to Europe 
through the Arabian schools in Spain." 

There have been but three great missionary religions — 
Judaism, Christianity and Mohammedanism. The Jew is the 
Child of Abraham through Jacob, the Saracen is the child of 
Abraham through Ishmael, and Christianity is the evolution 
of Judaism. 

V. The Empire of Charlemagne. 

We have noticed that the kingdom of the Franks was the 
greatest among the Teutonic nations. In 751 A. D., the Mer- 
ovingian dynasty was overthrown and the Carlovingian 
dynasty established. The transfer of the Roman Empire of 
the West to the dominion of the Franks was the great event 
of the eighth century. It marks a new epoch in European 
history. The name Carlovingian was derived from Charles 
Martel, the hero of the Battle of Tours, the Italian form of 
Charles being Carlo. By his achievements in uniting the 
Franks and driving back the Saracens, and by Pippin's suc- 
cess in the Italian wars inspiring the confidence of the West, 
the way was prepared for the establishment of a great empire 
under Charlemagne. For more than a thousand years Europe 
was to feel the influence of his methods of arovernment and 



his religious and educational ideas. He stands in the front 
rank of conquerors and monarchs. 

In the eighth century Europe possessed but a few cities, and 
these were small. The Western Empire was in the hands of 
the Church, and the Eastern had restrained the Oriental na- 
tions from westward aggressions. The few roads were in- 
fested with robbers, and canals as a means of transportation 
did not exist. These were the conditions in Europe when 
Charlemagne began his reign. He was the founder of modern 
Europe, and his religious and political achievements constitute 
his reign one of the most important in European history. Thus 
we see the significant bearing of this century upon modern 
times. 

In 771, at the death of Carloman, when Charlemagne be- 
came sole ruler, his kingdom included all of Gaul and the 
western part of Germany. In '800 his dominion included be- 
sides Germany practically all the territory once embraced in 
the Western Roman Empire. 

Respecting Charlemagne's place in history the following 
statement is an excellent condensation of the facts : "The reign 
of Charles the Great was like a brilliant meteor flashing 
through the darkness of the Middle Ages. Resplendent while 
it lasted, its fall was succeeded by profound gloom. But some 
of his achievements were permanent contributions to civiliza- 
tion. He conquered the Saxons and brought them under the 
influence of Christianity. The schools he established became 
centers of learning in an age of general ignorance. Although 
his Empire fell to pieces, some of the best features of his 



86 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



government remained. The strong centralization of govern- 
ment which he maintained was the ideal of good government 
in Europe for many centuries. His revival of the Empire 
rendered possible its second revival on a somewhat different 
basis by the kings of Germany, and laid the foundation for 
that ideal structure, the Holy Roman Empire. In his reign, 
the German and Roman elements of Europe were fused into 
a common whole. In language, law and race-feeling, a new 
people sprang up, combining what was best in German vigor 
and Roman culture. With the end of Charlemagne's reign be- 
gins a process which runs through the second half of the 
Middle Ages — the formation of the modern nations which we 
call Christendom." 

Questions and Topics for Study. 

We commend to the student Emerton's Introduction to the 
Study of the Middle Ages. Hodgkin's Italy and Her In- 
vaders, Vols. I and II. On the Roman Church, Fisher's Be- 
ginnings of Christianity, 520-533. Irving's Mahomet and His 
Successors. Freeman's History and Conquests of the Sara- 
cens. On the Eastern Empire, Bury's Later Empire. Ser- 
geant's The Franks. 

1. What was the religion of the early Germans? 

2. Of what kingdom was Theodoric king? 

3. By whom and when did the kingdom of the Ostrogoths 
come to an end? 

4. What kingdom brought nearly all other German tribes 
under its rule? 



5. What are the facts of Augustine's mission to the Anglo- 
Saxons and conversion of Ethelbert? 

6. What were the labors of St. Patrick in Ireland? 

7. What did St. Boniface do for Christianity in Germany? 

8. What relations existed between the Fankish king Pippin 
and the pope? 

9. What was the state of the Eastern Empire under Ar- 
cadius ? 

10. Who rendered the greater service to the Empire, Jus- 
tinian or Heraclius? 

11. What was the Iconoclastic Controversy, and how did 
it end? 

12. Mohammed. Carlyle's Essay in Heroes and Hero- 
Worship. 

13. Why was Mohammed compelled to flee from Mecca? 

14. What were the leading doctrines of this system? 

15. Trace the course of Mohammedan conquests to the Bat- 
tle of Tours. 

16. What was the great contribution of the Saracens to 
civilization ? 

17. What was the state of the Frankish kingdom when 
Charlemagne came to the throne? 

18. Give a Chronological outline of the conquests of 
Charles. 

19. What were some of the features of his administrative 
system ? 

20. What did he do for education by his school system? 

21. Charlemagne. Davis' Charlemagne (Heroes of the Na- 
tions). Einhard's Life of Charlemagne. 



MEDIEVAL ERA. 



87 



From the Death of Charlemagne to the Fall of 
Constantinople. 

Some authorities consider the Medieval Era to begin with 
the breaking up of the Empire of Charlemagne, others with the 
fall of the Western Empire. The latter is the view of the 
present writer. 

Before continuing our study of this period it will be well 
for us to note several important particulars. The first is the 
difference between Ancient and Medieval history. While the 
ancient deals with the East and also European States, the 
other two periods deal almost entirely with the white races of 
Western Europe. Again, in the ancient period but one or two 
nations claimed attention at a time, but when we come to the 
Middle Ages the development is exceedingly complex, and 
many states and their interrelations must be considered con- 
temporaneously. 

At every step in these studies it has been one of our chief 
aims to keep before the student those dominant influences and 
conditions that entered into the historic movement. "The 
reader of history of the Middle Ages will fail to grasp its sig- 
nificance unless he is able to trace through this period of tran- 
sition those dominant influences which were constantly lead- 
ing the nations of Europe to greater political and religious 
liberty." Thus we have seen the influence of the Christian 
Church to the death of Charlemagne. We have also noted 
how the Eastern Empire kept alive the culture of the past, 
and checked Mohammedanism, and how "it converted to 



Christianity and civilized the inhabitants of eastern Europe." 
In our following study we take up the institutions of the 
Middle Ages. But in line with the thought before us we note 
the obstacles to the progress of the period, especially that of 
feudalism. The weakness in central government gave rise to 
this system. When Charlemagne's Empire fell into dissolu- 
tion no sovereign was strong enough to properly protect his 
weak subjects, hence the feudal alliances in which the weak 
combined with the strong for their protection. But while 
feudalism was a hindrance to civilization we shall see in what 
manner "it came into existence to fill a need, and around it 
gathered those influences and institutions whose traces are 
still seen in continental Europe." 

Transitional periods are especially significant, and the great 
importance of the Medieval Era must not be overlooked. The 
infusion into Roman institutions of Teutonic strength and 
virility brought about a stronger race by the union of great 
elements. We have observed how invasions were calculated 
to check progress, but we must also see how in the end new 
elements were introduced. A significant example is England 
and the fusion of elements in this state. "Before the founda- 
tions of modern Europe could be laid, another people must 
add something of their vigor and free life, and following the 
breaking up of Charlemagne's Empire came the invasion of 
the Northmen. Finally when these people had received some 
of the culture of the Germans and Franks, they invaded Eng- 
land, mingled with the Anglo-Saxons and laid the founda- 
tion of that great nation from which America sprang." 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



All along, through periods of decline and development, the 
Medieval Era has contributed to our modern life and insti- 
tutions. Declensions were followed by purer and stronger 
conditions. During this time were established great institu- 
tions of learning whose influence is profoundly operative 
to-day. Representative government that occupies such a place 
in the political ideals of the present time had its beginning in 
this period. From these brief observations will be clearly 
seen the importance of carefully grasping the particulars of 
one era since the conditions established and principles formu- 
lated are to be carried over to the next, and the necessity of 
relating contemporaneous events for a true historic picture. 

Our last study closed with the Empire of Charlemagne and 
a statement of his place in history. We add to that the state- 
ment of Oman : "With him starts the idea of the Holy Roman 
Empire, which affected so deeply the whole secular and re- 
ligious life of the Middle Ages. The Frankish kingship, a 
mere rule of force, had no exalted and spiritual meaning; the 
new empire represented a close and conscious union of Church 
and State for the advantage of both." 

/. Dissolution of the Empire of Charlemagne. 

We trace this period from the point civilization had reached 
under Charles the Great to the darkest hour of this great era, 
when it seemed that the great structure that had been reared 
was to fall to ruin under the weakness of barbarism, never to 
be recovered. The following questions will guide the stu- 
dent in studying the facts of this period. 



Questions. 

i. By whom was Charlemagne succeeded? Was he capable 
of continuing his father's policy? What division did he make 
of his realm between his three sons? 

2. What precipitated the war between Louis and his sons? 

3. Following the death of Louis the question was whether 
the Empire should remain a unit. What connection did the 
war between the brothers have with this, and what was the 
issue? 

4. What was the Treaty of Verdun, and how does it mark 
the end of the Empire? 

5. Who were the Vikings, and what resulted from their in- 
vasions ? 

6. What caused the civil war between Louis and Charles, 
and what disintegrations followed? 

II. France. 

The dissolution of the Empire gave rise to new states. It 
is therefore a very important matter at this point to note the 
conditions under which new nations appeared, and how from 
the dark period through which we have just passed in our 
study another is forming, bringing new light and hope. 

It was during this period that the principles of the present 
systems of government of France and England were estab- 
lished. The fundamental difference between these systems 
will appear when we have surveyed the English movements 
of this period. As the present system of representative gov- 



MEDIEVAL ERA. 



89 



ernment dates from the Magna Charta, so we date "from the 
rule of the Capetians, the development of that absolutism 
which dominated the European nations until modern times." 
We trace, by the following questions, the history of France 
from its beginning to the close of the Hundred Years' War, 
which brings us to the close of the Middle Ages. 

Questions. 

The student will find Adams' Growth of the French Nation, 
and Thatcher and Schwill's Europe in the Middle Age very 
helpful. 

1. Who was the first king of France? 

2. Trace the history from the siege of Paris to the settle- 
ment of Normandy. What people settled in great numbers in 
this territory, and how did they affect the nation? 

3. What caused the civil wars in the reign of Charles the 
Simple ? 

4. When did the House of Capet take its rise? Note that 
the crowning of Hugh Capet may be considered as the real 
beginning of France as a nation. 

5. What was the state of France when Capet came to the 
throne, and over what peoples was he crowned king? 

6. During the early Capetians, from 987 to 1108, what was 
the general progress of the nation ? 

7. The great Capetians from Louis VI to Louis X. What 
is the length of this period? 

What was the strength of feudalism at the beginning of 
this period? 



8. What were the general conditions from Louis VI to 
Louis VIII? 

9. What were the beneficent measures of Louis VIII? 

10. State the condition of France at the end of the Capetian 
House? What was the French system of government? 

11. A new period in France begins with Philip VI, a period 
of disasters that threatened the overthrow of the Sovereignty. 

What was the cause of the Hundred Years' War? 
In what great battles were the English victorious? 
What was the condition of things when Joan of Arc 
aroused the national consciousness, and what did it effect ? 
How did the war end for France? 
Through what reigns did the war extend? 

///. Germany. 

To get at the beginnings of Germany we go back to the suc- 
cessor of Charlemagne and recall the struggles of his sons. 
We trace the history of this State from 855 to 936, and the 
struggle between France and Germany for Lothair, the Middle 
Kingdom. 

Questions. 

1. Which son of Louis the Pious was the founder of the 
German kingdom? What did his reign accomplish? 

2. Of what other nation was Charles the Fat the sovereign? 
Why did he abdicate his throne? 

3. When was the kingship made elective? With what 



9 o 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



system was Conrad brought into conflict, and what did he 
advise the Germans to do after his death? 

4. What was the distinction of Henry I? 

5. The struggle for Lothair. This kingdom at the death 
of Lothair was divided into three parts, which precipitated 
civil war. Between France and Germany began the struggle 
for this kingdom, that with varying results was to continue 
for more than a thousand years. 

With what kings did this struggle begin, and how did it 
come to arise? 

6. What actions of Charles the Fat helped to bring about 
the anti-Frankish sentiment in Italy? 

IV. The Holy Roman Empire. 

This empire extended over a period of 517 years, from 936 
to 1453. Otto, the son of Henry I, succeeded his father to the 
throne of Germany and became the founder of the Holy 
Roman Empire. Two general facts should be noted in con- 
nection with the present study. First, the part of feudalism 
as the active cause in much of the conflict of this period. 
Second, the influence of the Church, and that it was best and 
most lasting "when its activities were confined to the purpose 
for which it was organized." 

Questions. 

We commend to the student The Empire and the Papacy, 
by Tout. Bryce's Holy Roman Empire (ch. vi) on the In- 



vestiture Contest. On Otto the Great, Henderson's Germany 
in the Middle Ages, 134-138, and on Henry III, 174-176. 
History of All Nations, Vols. VIII, IX, X. 

1. The reigns of Otto and his successors. 

When was Otto made emperor? What was the difference 

between his empire and that of Constantine and Charlemagne? 

What were his successes and his ambition for the Germans? 

What was the state of the Empire under Otto's successors? 

2. The Franconian Emperors. 

How long was this period? 

What did Conrad II do for the establishment of royal au- 
thority ? 

How did Henry III become the most powerful of German 
kings? What connection existed between the papacy and 
Empire? 

What was the trouble between Henry IV and Pope Gregory, 
and how did it bring on civil war? How was the contest car- 
ried on by Henry V, and what settlement was secured by the 
Concordat of Worms? 

Who was the founder of the Hohenstaufen House? 

What did Frederick I do for the Empire? 

Note the distinction of Pope Innocent III in regard to his 
temporal power, his religious attitude and interest in the 
Crusades. 

What did Frederick II do for the administrative system, 



MEDIEVAL ERA. 



9i 



and what interest did he take in educational matters and the 
Crusades? Note the extension of German influence over the 
North and East during this century. 

3. The period from 1254 to 1453. 

This has been called "a period of many dynasties." 

What was the Great Interregnum, and how long did it 
extend ? 

By whom was the Imperial House of Austria founded, 
and what was his service in subduing the barons? 

When and by whom was the House of Luxemburg founded ? 

What significance attached to the famous "Golden Bull" of 
Charles IV? 

In whose reign was the House of Hohenzollern founded? 
What was the great policy of expansion of this House? 

Note how the states of Germany and Italy became frag- 
mentary, destroying all hope of national unity, and how the 
Empire lost its distinction. 

Who was the last emperor to be crowned at Rome, and 
when? 

V. England. 

To the American student the history of England must be of 
special interest because of her vital relation to America and 
its institutions. But the history and progress of England is 
but a part of the history and progress of mankind. Again we 



are to understand her movements in connection with the Euro- 
pean States. The causes for many events in English history 
are to be found elsewhere. It is of the first importance that 
we appreciate the influence of the various peoples that con- 
stituted the early life of this nation in shaping its course. 
English histoi y to the close of the Medieval Era falls into two 
sections or periods, the first ending with the Norman conquest 
in 1066 A. D., and the second, from the Norman conquest to 
the end of the Hundred Year's War, 1453. 

When it is said that the battle of Hastings is one of the de- 
cisive battles of the world, it means that the Norman conquest 
of England was, through this state, invested with a world- 
wide interest as marking a great turning point in the world's 
history. Following this event great steps are taken in the de- 
velopment of English liberties, determining much in her polit- 
ical history constantly enlarging to the point of the dem- 
ocracy which to-day she represents. Thus the Magna Charta 
was one of the great events of the world in its influence upon 
English institutions and the effect of these upon the civiliza- 
tion of the world. The seed that was sown in 12 15 when King 
John at Runnymede signed the Great Charter not only bore 
fruit in the continued development and establishment of Eng- 
lish liberties, but appeared and was operative in the Declara- 
tion of Independence and the Emancipation Proclamation. 
England formed the instrument that under King George was 
to vindicate the position of her American colonies. 

In English history we should see a remarkable combina- 
tion of forces shaping the life and policies of a people whose 



9 2 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



influence upon the civilization of the world is greater than that 
of any modern state. 

Questions. 

The following works may be consulted with great profit : 
Green's Short History of the English People is unusually 
valuable. Kendall's Source-Book of English History. For 
the spirit of the times read Marlowe's Edward II, Shake- 
speare's King John, Tennyson's Harold. Scott's Ivanhoe and 
The Talisman. Miss Yonge's Lances at Lynwood for the time 
of Edward III. 

1. The Roman Period. 

What is the area of the British Isles ? 

When did Caesar invade Britain, and what is the date of the 
Roman occupation? 

How long was Britain under Roman control, and what 
benefits accrued to these Isles? 

2. The Anglo-Saxon Period. 

When did the Northmen invade Britain? 

What series of events culminated with the rule of Egbert 
and the establishment of Britain as England ? 

Who was the greatest of England's earliest kings? With 
what people was he brought into conflict, and what progress 
did learning and Christianity make during his rule? 

How were the shires constituted in Anglo-Saxon govern- 
ment? 



3. The Norman Period. 

From what year does the Norman conquest date? 

What were the administrative system and policies of Wil- 
liam? 

What was William's Domesday Book? 

What three Norman kings succeeded William, and what 
contest was waged with the feudal barons? 

What did the Charter of Henry I guarantee? 

4. The Angevin Kings. 

Henry II was one of the greatest of English kings. In 
what respects? What trouble arose between him and Becket? 

What was the leading interest of the reign of Richard I? 

King John has been called the most contemptible of the Eng- 
lish kings. What in his reign justifies that statement? What 
was his personal interest in the Magna Charta? 

In whose reign was the first House of Commons called and 
in what year? 

What two Scottish patriots figured in the reigns of the first 
two Edwards, and to what end? 

5. The Hundred Years' War. 

Edward III came to the throne at the age of fourteen. The 
question upon which this war turned was whether France and 
Scotland should be controlled by the king of England. 

When did Edward open active hostilities? 



MEDIEVAL ERA. 



93 



Through what reigns did this war continue? How did it 
issue as to English control? 

In what condition did it leave France as to its unification? 
As to its material prosperity? 

As judged by this extended war, which was the better gov- 
erned country? 

6. General development. 

(a) In whose reign did Tyler's Rebellion occur, what pre- 
cipitated it and what in English affairs does it signify? 

In what way was Wyclif, the great preacher, involved in 
this Rebellion? 

(b) What governmental changes took place during the 
Hundred Years' War? With reference to Parliamentary 
judgment in all matters? The separation of the House of 
Commons ? 

(c) What changes were brought about in the feudal system, 
and how was the condition of the peasant class bettered? 

(d) Literature. 

Who wrote Piers Plowman, and what influence did it have 
upon the time? 

Who was the most famous poet of this period, what was 
his great poem and what did he do for the English language? 

VI. Other European States. 

While Germany, France and England centralize the history 
of the Medieval Era in the great developments we have 
already considered, other States demand some notice. 



i. Spain. 

"The five strong Christian kingdoms which rose on the 
ruins of the Saracen civilization developed one of the most 
characteristic types of Medieval Christianity." 

(a) What are these five kingdoms? 

(b) What was the distinction of Alfonso the Wise, Pedro 
III, James II and Alfonso V? 

2. Portugal. 

When did interest in geographical discovery begin, what 
was the object and what was accomplished during this era? 

3. Switzerland. 

Peculiar interest has always been awakened in this liberty- 
loving people. 

(a) What was Switzerland prior to the time ©f Charle- 
magne ? 

(b) When did the struggle for independence begin, and 
when did the Swiss Confederacy receive imperial recognition ? 

(c) What was the result of the civil war of 1436? 

4. Scandinavia. 

(a) What two Danish rulers were associated with English 
history? 

(b) When was Christianity established in Norway and 
Sweden ? 



94 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



(c) How did Norway distinguish herself during the latter 
half of the thirteenth century? 

(d) When and by whom were Norway, Sweden and Den- 
mark united? 

5. Russia. 

(a) The early Slavic settlements. 

(b) Whom did the early settlers invite to be their king, 
and what was the progress of the Empire under his succes- 
sors ? What demands were made upon Constantinople in 907 ? 

(c) In the eleventh century their civilization was on a plane 
with that of Western Europe. By what invasions was it de- 
stroyed in the thirteenth century, thus delaying her develop- 
ment for some centuries? 

6. The Ottoman Empire. 

(a) When did the Turks establish the foundations of an 
empire in the western part of Asia Minor? 

(b) What progress had they made by the middle of the 
fourteenth century? 

(c) When did they capture Constantinople and bring the 
Byzantine Empire to an end? 

The Crusades. 

While the Mohammedan persecution of Christian pilgrims 
in Palestine was an important cause, it would be a mistake to 



suppose that it was the only cause of the Crusades. It may 
not be far from the truth to say that it was the occasion for 
the vigorous life of the time to find an expression in chivalry 
and activity, and, of course, religious sentiment. "The Cru- 
sades were a new chapter in the long warfare of Christendom 
with Mohammedanism. In the Middle Ages there were two 
worlds utterly distinct — that of the Gospel and that of the 
Koran. In Europe, with the exception of Spain, the Gospel 
had sway; from the Pyrenees to the mouths of the Ganges, 
the Koran. The border contests between the two hostile 
parties on the eastern and western frontiers of Christendom 
were now to give place to conflict on a larger scale during cen- 
turies of invasion and war." The Crusades awakened a pro- 
found enthusiasm in all classes, yearning for a broader 
theater of action, their energies cramped by their narrow con- 
fines in the overcrowded condition of Europe. Princes and 
nobles entered into this enthusiasm, both to crush the Moham- 
medan and to distinguish themselves in military action. 

Questions. 

Besides the works on this general period already com- 
mended we would suggest The Crusades by Archer and Kings- 
ford (Story of the Nations). Chs. viii and xiii of Tout's 
The Empire and the Papacy. Letters of the Crusaders, Penn- 
sylvania Reprints, I, 4. 

1. Who was the prime author of the first Crusade, and what 
inducements were offered to enlist in it? How did it result? 



MEDIEVAL ERA. 



95 



2. Who were the principal leaders of the second Crusade, 
how large a force entered in the expedition and what did it 
effect? 

3. Between the second and third Crusades what were Sala- 
din's achievements in Jerusalem? Who were the leaders of 
this expedition and how did it issue? 

4. Why did the fourth Crusade never reach the Holy Land ? 

5. What were the remarkable features of the Children's 
Crusade ? 

6. What were the general results of the remaining Crusades 
ending in 1271 ? 

Was Palestine released from Turkish oppression? 

The moral, political, commercial and intellectual results of 
the Crusades were far-reaching. "It is hard to overestimate 
the effect which the Crusades had upon the intellectual life of 
Europe. The Saracens, who had obtained their civilization 
from the Greeks, had made advances in medical knowledge, 
general science, art and architecture far beyond anything ac- 
complished in Europe. These things, added to the sum total 



of knowledge, suggested to the Christians that there was much 
more to learn and that even the despised infidel Turk could 
teach them many things. Thus they gained a broader outlook 
upon the world and were ready for that intellectual awaken- 
ing which reached its highest development in the sixteenth 
century." 

The Chart. 

By the means of the chart the leading facts can be gathered 
up and the entire period easily reviewed. From the study of 
this historic section we can see how the great elements of 
civilization were brought to hand by antiquity. Note how the 
chart falls into three general sections. In the second sec- 
tion relate the events of the various states contemporaneously. 
Note the year in which they all issue, the close of this period. 
Relate the periods of the various crusades with the existing 
conditions in each State, and thus as much as possible grasp 
these events in their chronological unity. 



^Medieval institutions and {Renaissance 
Ghivalrv (Psce tj cism 



A. institution of Knight- 
^^^l.Ct social \ hood. 
' ^ system based \2.6eremonies for 

on land ownerships, candidates. 
I. Origin, developmeni\3. {Mer its of the 
influence. \ system. 

^.{Relation of vassal to his \4* (Disappear 
lord, She feudal family, \ance inl&th 
4.0eclined under higher econom-\cenl. 
ic, religious and political civili 
zation. gum of 



1. Origin in Sgypl and 

Sreece. /X.Sastern, 

2. *^bws of the hermiL/2. Western, 
&.eflylites^{fheir /Benedictines, found^ 

peculiarities, Zed by (Benedict. (House 
4.&xaggeraled/of Gluny. influence upon 
notions, /Suropean history, 
practices./^. {Mendicant Orders. Francis- 
cans, (Dominicans. 
4.$eneficent service of (Monasti- 

ei8m '{Modern Sra 



jG> 



earning 



art 



^jQiterature 



{Scholasticism 



dhe {Schoolmen. tSPcotus, 
jQa nfranc, Qbela rd, (Aquinas, 
{To conform faith to reason. 
3Vew JZearning in rJlaly 



{fhree Periods. 

Glassical learning, 

tftudy ofSreek, 

Griticism. 
She {Medici Family. 
dYew Learning inSngland 



Golet, Srasmus, {Moor 
c7n France 



Sudacus, Galvin. 
?7n Sermany 



Luther. (Melanchthnn. 



Italian {Renaissance 

1. (Architecture. (Brunelleschi, 

Sramante, Palladio. 

2. {Sculpture. Shiberti, (Dona- 

tello, tRobbia, {Michelangelo 
architect, sculptor, painter. 

8. Painting. FraiJtngelico, Le- 
onardo da ^t/inci {Michelan- 
gelo, Gorreggio, {Raphael 
prince of painters. 

t&erman {Renaissance 



(Durer, (ffolbein. 
3 he {fCelherlands 

{Rubens, {Rembrandt. 
{Spanish {Renaissance 
^^elasiguezj^turMo^^ 



{Revival in c//q/ y. 1268 -1S00. 
(Dante, Petrarch, (Boccaccio, 
{Machiavelli, Ctriosto. 
France. 1485-1800. 
{Rabelais, {Montaigne type 
of the spirit of scepticism. 
She Pleiade. Gompacl of 7 
writers to improve the 
French tongue. 
{Spain. 1411-1600. 



£>uan de (Mena enriched the 

language. 
{Mendoza, historian and poet. 
Gervanies. jQope de ^ega, 

wrote 1500 plays. 



Ghart 7 



MEDIEVAL INSTITUTIONS AND THE RENAISSANCE 



In the preceding study we traced the historical development 
from the Fall of Rome to the Fall of Constantinople. We 
saw both how the elements of civilization existing in 476 A. D. 
operated throughout the following centuries, the rise and fall 
of empires, and European conditions to 1453. 

In our study of the ancient world emphasis was laid upon 
the relation of the individual to the State. Modern history will 
show us the reversal of that situation and it is in the period 
with which we are now dealing that the way was paved for 
the larger individualism. It is therefore a transitional period, 
and like all such periods is of great importance. Our atten- 
tion is too liable to be held by the thing when it breaks upon 
the view full of life and energy and to overlook the processes 
that led up to the new movement. Our last study has shown 
us the movements of the nations, the struggles and conflicts 
through an extended period that brought us to the close of the 
Medieval era. We now proceed to examine the institutions 
of that period that exerted a mighty influence, and the dawn 
of modern times in the civilization of the Renaissance. It is 
important that we note the manner in which institutions were 
related and the influence of one upon the other, so that when 
one ceased to exist that much of support was drawn from the 
rest. 



Feudalism. 

1. Nature of the System. 

This is stated in a word in the chart — a social system based 
on land ownership. Land held by a tenant conditioned upon 
certain services rendered to his lord was called fief, and in the 
Middle Ages this developed into a system which we designate 
by the term feudalism, a word derived from the Latin feodum. 

2. Origin and Elements. 

The germ of feudalism is to be found in the time of the 
conquest of Gaul by the Franks, who divided the land among 
themselves, the king receiving the largest portion. All grants 
of land made by the king obligated those receiving the same 
to render the king personal service. This gradually became 
an established method of living as well as of government in 
Western Europe, the dominion of Charlemagne falling into 
the hands of feudal lords. When danger threatened, the 
weaker lords attached themselves to the stronger just as in 
the last days of the Roman Empire the poor and those heavily 
burdened sought the protection of the strong and settled on 
their lands. Under the following heads the leading facts and 
features are briefly stated: 

(1.) That those receiving lands from the King under the 



97 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



beneficiary system, or those under the practice of commenda- 
tion who attached themselves to a lord assumed obligations 
and promised fidelity and obedience. 

(2.) The one who made the feudal grant was known as 
liege, while the one to whom the grant was made was the 
liegeman or vassal. 

(3.) While the vassal obligated himself to support his lord 
by rendering military service and assistance in judicial affairs, 
the lord obligated himself to protect the vassal and see that he 
received justice in his relations with others. 

(4.) The estate of the father, upon his death, fell to the 
eldest son, and in the event of there being no heirs the fief 
belonged to the lord. 

(5.) The feudal family comprised, in its broader sense, "all 
the possessors of fiefs and their vassals — a great family, in- 
deed, related by ties of service and kinship, and including not 
laymen alone, but even bishops and monastic orders." Many 
social distinctions were preserved. The lord's castle was a 
fortress protected by its position and fortifications, the mem- 
bers of bis immediate family sharing the duties of the house- 
hold. 

(6.) To the serfs the lord let out his land which he re- 
served and was called the domain, and received in return the 
serf's labor or a part of his crops. 

(7.) The Church played an important part in the feudal 
system, large sections of land being bestowed upon ecclesiasti- 
cal institutions. "About one-third of Germany was ecclesias- 
tical land ruled by archbishops and abbots." 



3. Significance and influence of feudalism. 

Under this system there was necessarily a lack of central 
government, each lord ruled according to his own interests and 
exercised force to secure his ends. Disputations over terri- 
tories brought these sovereigns into constant conflict dominated 
by personal greed. 

It is commonly noted, however, how under the feudal or- 
der Christendom was saved from heathen invaders, by virtue 
of the manner in which the feudal domains were fortified and 
the system of mutual protection secured by the organization. 
Again, feudalism brought under cultivation great tracts of 
land, and greatly advanced agricultural interests. 

Not the least of the merits that belong to this social order 
was the development of such virtues as honor and reverence 
for woman, and what is known as chivalry, our next topic of 
study. 

4. Decline of feudalism. 

From the very nature of feudalism it could not hope to be- 
come a permanent state of society. It was temporary and 
transitional and must cease to exist under a higher religious, 
political and economic civilization. Its two principles, riches 
and force, were too limited. And while it developed a certain 
individuality and a sense of loyalty much in advance of an 
irrational obedience of the slave to his master, yet the lord 
was an autocrat exacting all he could possibly obtain. 

From the closing years of the thirteenth century great 



MEDIEVAL ERA. 



99 



changes developed in the growth of monarchies and commer- 
cial conditions. In England, France and Germany the author- 
ity of the king became established, and the French Revolution 
swept from that soil every trace of the feudal system. 

Questions. 

i. What conditions favored feudalism following the fall 
of the Empire of Charlemagne ? 

2. What was the difference between the beneficiary system 
(beneficium) and the practice of commendation? 

3. State the difference between a vassal and a serf. 

4. How should the position of the serf be distinguished 
from slavery and free labor? 

5. What ceremony attended the conveying of land to a vas- 
sal, and what was the form of investiture in the case of 
ecclesiastical grants? 

6. How was the military system constituted? How was 
the army composed and how did it operate? 

7. What was the chief defect in the feudal system? 

Topics for Study. 

1. The Origin of Feudalism. Adam's Civilization During 
the Middle Ages, pp. 194-217; Emerton's Introduction to the 
Middle Ages, ch. xv. 

2. The Feudal Society and Family Life. Guizot's History 
of European Civilisation; Adam's Medieval and Modern His- 
tory, pp. 28, 90, 91. 



3. Feudalism in England. History of All Nations, x, 325- 

335- 

4. Feudalism in France. History of All Nations, viii, 162; 
ix, 81, 224, 255. 

5. Feudalism in Germany. History of All Nations, viii, 225, 
230, 289, 306. 

6. Struggle of Feudalism with Monarchy. History of All 
Nations, x, 144, 265-324. 

Chivalry. 

The word Chivalry originally signified a body of horsemen, 
the word being derived from the French word Cheval, signify- 
ing horse, hence the application of the word to knights. By 
chivalry, in the Middle Ages, was meant the institution of 
knighthood. This system exerted a tremendous influence upon 
this period, and the statement of one writer is not too strong 
that, "Excepting Christianity, no single cause made so pro- 
found a contrast between the ancient and the modern people." 

Questions and Topics for Study. 

1. What were the essential virtues of knighthood? 

2. Chaucer's description of a knight. Prologue to the Can- 
terbury Tales. 

3. What requirements were necessary to membership in 
this order? 

4. What education or training was essential to knighthood? 
Was any learning, as we understand the term, required? 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



5. General Characteristics of Chivalry. Cutt's Scenes and 
Characters of the Middle Ages, pp. 311-460. 

6. What was the ceremony that inducted into knighthood? 
The oaths of the knight ? 

7. Chivalry at Its Best, as set forth in Scott's Ivanhoe and 
The Talisman. 

8. The Chivalry of King Arthur's Time in England, Tenny- 
son's Idylls of the King. 

9. Chivalry in England for Youthful Readers, Pyle's Men 
of Iron. 

10. A Boy of the Middle Ages. Pyle's Otto of the Silver 
Hand. 

The Passing of Chivalry. 

Chivalry reached its zenith during the Crusades. The 
virtues of knighthood were exemplified during the wars be- 
tween France and England in the manner in which these 
enemies treated each other. All this was changed, however, 
when the discovery of gunpowder altered the mode of war- 
fare. Under these new conditions the spirit of chivalry de- 
cayed. "The rise and fall of chivalry were contemporaneous 
with the rise and fall of the feudal system, of which the former 
was merely an outgrowth. In the fourteenth century its in- 
fluence was rapidly declining, and by the end of the fifteenth 
it had practically disappeared or survived only in titled ad- 
venturers who aped the manners without practicing the prin- 
ciples of genuine knighthood." 



Asceticism. 

The origin of this practice does not belong to this period 
nor to Christian ideas, for it existed among the pagan nations, 
as in Egypt and Greece, as an offering to the gods, or under 
the belief that peculiar benefits would accrue to those who 
thus isolated themselves from the world. Asceticism is not to 
be confounded with the teachings of Judaism and Christianity. 
Features of the Jewish system designed to isolate the Jew 
from other peoples for the .peculiar ends for which the race 
was selected carried in no sense the idea of asceticism. Again, 
Christianity in demanding separation from the world is not 
to be interpreted in ascetic terms. The genius of Christianity 
is the very antithesis of this idea of seclusion and announces 
the conquest of the world by its principles by personal contact 
and a vigorous activity. 

The early hermits lived alone in a desert place, taking upon 
themselves vows of poverty and chastity, and when hermits 
became associated in their isolation and lived together, the vow 
of obedience was assumed. 

The stylites or pillar saints was an exaggeration of this 
practice of seclusion. They reared pillars on the top of which 
was their hut with scarcely sufficient space in which to move. 
Saint Simeon of the fourth century added to his pillar until it 
reached sixty feet and was about three yards in circumference. 
Upon this he lived for thirty-seven years. 

In striving after a life of chastity the hermit entertained the 
most mistaken notions and perverted the very Scriptures he 
thought he was magnifying. If one were plundered of his 



MEDIEVAL ERA. 



possessions he considered he was following the scriptural in- 
junction in overtaking the thief and handing him something 
which had escaped his notice. 

Monasticism. 

The monasticism of the East has never exercised a strong 
influence, following closely the manner of the early hermits. 
It was quite different with the monasticism of the West. 
From the time that Athanasius (340 A. D.) brought two 
monks into western Europe they traveled far to the west and 
established monasteries in great numbers occupied by thou- 
sands of monks. 

1. The Benedictines. This order was founded by Benedict 
of Nursia. He established certain rules for the government of 
his monks. Hitherto they had followed in their own way and 
kept their vows. Benedict laid down rules regulating their 
conduct for every hour. A part of the time was devoted to 
work and other hours to prayer and meditation. This system 
received the hearty support of Pope Gregory the Great. Un- 
der this system the monks became a real benefit to society. 
During the sixth century literary interests were developed, and 
in the intellectual pursuits of the monasteries lay one of the 
most vital facts of the Middle Ages. 

2. The House of Cluny. The famous house that was des- 
tined to exert such a powerful influence in Europe, was 
established at Cluny in Burgundy by Count Berno in 910 A. 
D. The object of this abbot in this new establishment was to 



restore the spiritual life of the monasteries which had fallen 
into disrepute. Luxury and immorality had taken the place of 
simplicity and purity. Simony (Acts viii, 9-24) was the pre- 
vailing ecclesiastical evil. So successful was Count Berno in 
restoring the Benedictine rule that many sought admittance to 
the new order. The result was Cluny became the center of a 
system of which the other monasteries were tributaries, and 
dictated the rules for general control. "By the middle of the 
twelfth century the abbot of Cluny had no less than two 
thousand houses, mostly in France, tributary to him, and the 
position he occupied in the Christian world was second only to 
that of the pope, whom at times he exceeded in actual influ- 
ence." 

Merits and Demerits of Monasticism. 

Our space does not permit us to say much of either. That 
the system had demerits and was open to criticism no unpre- 
judiced mind can refuse to accept. Stress has frequently been 
laid upon the fact that monasticism drained the world of its 
best talent, shut it up in monasteries and kept it from its 
largest contact with the world. It has also been shown how 
this institution was inimical to the family and the position of 
women and hence was striking at the root institutions of the 
race. We have already seen how that in the possession of 
wealth monasticism was not proof against the evils of idleness 
and immorality. But in this we must not be unfair. Such 
evils are liable to attend the acquisition of wealth by any in- 
stitution thoroughly good and desirable in itself. 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



We should never fail to appreciate the positive benefits of 
Monasticism to the world. "The monks were the civilizers of 
the Middle Ages, the unifying agency which held together the 
diverging ranks of human society. In particular, the monks 
actually preserved, during the darkness and night of those 
early centuries, all of Christianity, civilization and learning 
that survived in the West." Among their scholars were such 
men as Duns Scotus, Roger Bacon, William of Occam. They 
established a foundation upon which the modern era might 
plant its feet, and conferred immense benefits for which the 
world must ever feel its deepest indebtedness. Not only have 
they served the ages in these respects, they made large 
contributions along such lines as the art of embroidery, their 
work in ivory, wood, gold and bronze, their fresco-painting. 
Mosaic art and manuscript work in vellum. They engaged in 
the various trades and in all of the activities of the time, and 
their monasteries ministered to the deepest needs of the 
people. 

Questions and Topics for Study. 

i. House of Cluny. The New International Encyclopaedia, 
article Monasticism. History of All Nations, viii, 253-300; 

ix, 35- 

2. What were the peculiarities of the Grammont Order, es- 
tablished in 1073? 

3. The Carthusian Order. Adam's Civilization During the 
Middle Ages, pp. 230-244. History of All Nations, xviii, 235. 



4. The Cistercians, The New International Encyclopaedia, 
article Monasticism. History of All Nations, ix, 64-74, 85. 

5. When were the Mendicant orders established? 

6. The Franciscans. Adam's Civilization During the Middle 
Ages, pp. 230-244. Tout's Empire and Papacy, pp. 96-99, 198,- 
209. 

7. Dominican Order. History of All Nations, ix, 189, 252; 
xi, 26, 34. 

8. What were the causes of the spread of monasticism? 

9. Would a strong central government have been a greater 
or less advantage to monasticism? What was the dominant 
political system of that time ? 

10. When did the influence of monasticism begin to decline? 

The Renaissance. 

Anything like a full statement of the facts relative to the 
learning, literature and art of this period would be quite aside 
from the plan and scope of this volume. On the other hand it 
lies within the realm of our purpose to note the relation of 
this great moment to what preceded and what followed, and 
thus grasp its historic significance. 

/. Early and Later Learning. 

From our study of Greece and Rome we saw, especially in the 
case of the former, the intellectual civilization that was de- 
veloped. When these nations declined so did the culture which 
they created. When Rome fell instead of a new great state 



MEDIEVAL ERA. 



103 



with an influential civilization following it to give these things 
a new impulse, the conquerors were barbarians, whose domi- 
nant interest was conquest. Under these conditions and the 
prevailing ignorance the intellectual and aesthetic civilization of 
Greece and Rome practically passed away. 

1. Scholasticism. 

In the disappearance of schools, learning was confined al- 
most entirely to the monks, and kept within the cloister. We 
have seen in a former study the new impulse given to learning 
by Charlemagne and his schools. The second impulse was 
given by scholasticism. 

The object of this new movement was to secure conformity 
of faith to reason, i. e., to furnish a rational and logical basis 
for the world-order consistently with church doctrines. From 
the ninth to the latter part of the twelfth century such School- 
men as Eregina, Gerbert, Lafranc and Abelard developed this 
theological scholasticism. The latter was the leading repre- 
sentative of the rationalistic movement, the contention of 
which was that reason and not dogma was the only safe guide 
— that "nothing is to be believed but what has been first under- 
stood." 

The later Schoolmen appeared in the thirteenth century. 
The three great representatives were Elbertus Magnus (1205- 
1280), Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274), and Duns Scotus, who 
was born in the British Isles about 1270 and became a dis- 
tinguished teacher both at Oxford and the University of Paris. 

Notwithstanding the manner in which the abstractions of 



scholasticism would seem absurd to us, it was far from being 
useless in some of the results and especially in its influence 
upon later movements. "While scholasticism exaggerated, it 
developed to a marked degree the power of deductive reason- 
ing ; it taught the use and value of language as the instrument 
of thought, and made apparent the necessity of nice discrimina- 
tions in the use of words. It laid the foundation upon which 
modern education, beginning with the Renaissance, was built." 
Thus it is of the first importance that the student grasp these 
basic elements and see how they fit into the structure of in- 
tellectual development. 

2. The later learning in Italy. 

The feudal system was the dominant political organization 
of the Middle Ages. There was no great controlling nation, 
and no distinctive national unity. It was a transitional period, 
made up of various societies. General intelligence was wholly 
wanting, and in the monasteries alone were there any intel- 
lectual tendencies, and even there superstition abounded. But 
by the middle of the sixteenth century all conditions, political 
and intellectual, had changed. Feudalism was dead as was 
chivalry, and with the commercial activity progress was made 
in all matters of culture. The modern nations became es- 
tablished, and in every sense a new world had appeared. It 
was in Italy that the Renaissance as an intellectual revival was 
distinguished more than in any other nation, and upon the in- 
tellectual awakening of this period depended in large measure 
the revivals in commerce, literature and art. 



104 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



(i.) The period of classical learning. 

The Latin as used and spoken was much inferior to the 
Latin of Ancient Rome, and to the classics of the Augustan 
Age the scholars of Italy turned their attention. The classical 
learning that had disappeared was now restored as a revivify- 
ing force by Petrarch, Boccaccio and others. An interest in 
Greek and Greek manuscripts resulted naturally from this 
classical awakening, and the monasteries of Europe were 
searched for the ancient classics. Agents were sent by Pope 
Nicholas V to the East and the West where such manuscripts 
might be found and deposited in the Vatican library which he 
founded. When Constantinople fell into the hands of the 
Turks, in 1453, "the westward flight of Greek scholars was 
greatly increased, and most of them took refuge in Italy, where 
they established classical schools a second time, bringing to 
the West the genius and wisdom of the Greeks." This at- 
tracted large numbers of students from other nations, who in 
time returned to their native lands and spread the new culture 
throughout western Europe. 

(2.) The period of criticism in Italy. 

The absorbing interest in the classics resulted in the more 
exact understanding of them, and the history with which they 
were related. By such a study the early ages were restored, 
ruling ideas and culture of the people brought to light and in- 
terpreted, and, in a word, a general reconstruction of that early 
civilization. Thus we see how the things so dominant in the 
ancient period that had passed out of existence are now alive 



again, a breathing, palpitating life and a life-giving power to 
a new age, the contribution of the past to later times. 

It only required the invention of printing by Gutenberg, in 
1438, in Germany, to popularize culture as it could not be done 
by hand-written parchments, and this with the manufacture of 
paper from rags in the sixteenth century produced a revolution 
in the realm of learning. 

3. Learning in other countries. 

The awakening in England arose through the labors of 
Bracciolini, Vitelli and Grocyn, which developed into practical 
forms in medicine, ethics and religious reforms. Colet, who 
became dean of St. Paul's, labored to interpret Christianity, re- 
lieving it of the dogmatizing of the Middle Ages. "The 
awakening," says Green, "of a rational Christianity, whether 
in England or the Teutonic world at large, began with the 
Italian studies of John Colet." With him was associated 
Erasmus, who, in the closing years of Henry VIII, established 
more grammar schools than had been founded for a period of 
three centuries. 

To these names may be added that of Thomas More ( 1478- 
1535), who is best known as the author of Utopia, and Roger 
Ascham (1516-1568), author of The Schoolmaster. 

In France the two names that stand out prominently are 
Budacus (1467-1540), one of the greatest French scholars and 
authors of his time, and John Calvin (1509-1564), whose 
theological works made him the great constructionist of the 
Protestant Reformation. 



MEDIEVAL ERA. 



105 



In Germany, Martin Luther greatly advanced classical cul- 
ture, as did his friend and helper Melanchthon, and "by the 
middle of the sixteenth century Germany was practically the 
equal of Italy in scholarship, while England and France were 
far behind." 

II. Literature. 

Literature is one of the most essential expressions of a 
people. A knowledge of European literature is indispensable 
to a knowledge of European history. The literature of the 
Renaissance should be judged by the conditions of the times 
which it represents and at the same time should not be mis- 
judged by the medieval coarseness which it distinguishes. 

1. The revival in Italy. 

In the midst of political agitation, literature and art de- 
veloped to a high degree. The founders of Italian literature 
were Petrarch, Boccaccio and Dante. The Medici of Florence 
actively stimulated learning. 

Dante's immortal work, the Divina Commedia, was the crea- 
tion of his own mind unaided by any existing model, while its 
influence on literature has been inestimable. The poem falls 
into three parts describing Hell, Purgatory and Paradise. 

We have already seen the effect of classical study upon 
Italian learning. But the continuous study of the ancients 
was detrimental to the development of the Italian tongue. It 
was used by the common people, but scholars refused to write 
in their native language. 



The two names that stand out prominently during the second 
revival are Machiavelli and Ariosto. The former is best 
known by his famous work The Prince, " in which he investi- 
gates the rule of a despotic sovereign and which embodies 
maxims of tyranny and a diabolical system of politics that 
have made the name of Machiavelli synonymous with political 
cunning and duplicity." It was upon his one great poem, Or- 
lando Furioso, that the fame of Ariosto was established. 

Italy was the natural birthplace of the Renaissance, and the 
influence of the literature of this period (1265-1500) has been 
widely felt. 

2. The revival in France. 

The mixture of Latin and northern languages gave rise to 
the Provencal. In this new tongue hundreds of poets called 
the troubadours developed a poetic spirit of an amazing nature. 
It became the rage and fashion of the time. One of the most 
eminent of the troubadours was Richard Coeur de Lion. When 
Provencal lapsed into a mere dialect, the literary language of 
France came forth, following the Norman invasion. The poets 
of this period called themselves trouveres. The two writers 
demanding notice preceding the Renaissance are Froissart 
( I 337" I 4io), and Comines (1445-1509). 

Rabelais (1483- 15 53), whom Bacon called the "Great Jester 
of France," was the most striking figure of this period. His 
masterpiece, Adventures of Gargantua and Pantagruel, made 
him "to France what Shakespeare, Cervantes and Ariosto were 
to England, Spain and Italy." 



io6 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



It was Montaigne who best represented the spirit of scepti- 
cism that resulted from this intellectual development. He in- 
troduced into France the philosophical study of human nature. 

The seven writers called The Pleiade, whose object was the 
improvement of the French tongue, contributed largely to 
making it a truly literary language. 

3. The revival in Spain. 

The four great names that appear during the period 141 1- 
1600 are Juan de Mena, Mendoza, Cervantes and Lope De 
Vega. The influence of Italy upon the Spanish awakening was 
peculiarly strong favored by various circumstances of likeness 
of language, proximity and relations of the two peoples. The 
first of the writers noted greatly enriched the language, the 
second contributed to the literature as historian and poet, the 
third was the author of Don Quixote, the most widely read 
book of any Spanish author and one profoundly affecting 
society; the fourth, the most popular dramatist of his time, 
having written about fifteen hundred plays. 

This brief survey will enable us to catch the spirit of this 
new epoch in the realm of literature, and to form some idea of 
the mental expansion in these countries of the Renaissance. 

777. Revival in Art. 

It is in the three branches, architecture, sculpture and paint- 
ing, that the glory of the Renaissance is especially distinctive, 
and in which its influence will continue to be felt for all time. 
During this period Italy holds the first place, and by her 



creations has stimulated a love for art and constructed a new 
world in the realm of aesthetics. Thus in the midst of the 
enlarging conditions of this epoch we come to this new expres- 
sion of human appreciations in their varied exhibitions of form, 
beauty and truth. 

1. In Italy. 

(1.) Architecture. The three great names that represent 
the work of the Renaissance in this field are Brunelleschi, the 
Florentine architect whose great work was the dome of the 
Cathedral, "one of the greatest accomplishments of human in- 
genuity ;" Bramante, who labored under the patronage of 
Popes Alexander VI and Julius II, and began the present St. 
Peter's in Rome, and Palladio, with whom "the period of 
originality ends and a slavish imitation of Roman architecture 
and an extravagance in decoration begin." It was under Bra- 
mante that the Renaissance architecture reached its zenith. 

In the period of decay Michelangelo (1475-1564) appeared, 
whose greatest triumph in architecture is the dome of St. 
Peter's. 

(2.) Sculpture. 

Three great sculptors appeared almost contemporaneously. 
The first, Ghiberti, while architecture was at its height. Of 
his bronze doors of the Baptistry in Florence, Michelangelo 
said they were worthy to serve as the gates of Paradise. 

Donatello, the fellow-student of Brunelleschi, was a vigor- 
ous artist. The strength of his work is seen in his Saint 



MEDIEVAL ERA. 



107 



George, while his description of Child Nature was unsurpassed 
by any of his time. 

The masterpiece of Luca della Robbia was the bronze doors 
of the sacristy of the Cathedral of Florence, although he is 
better known by his enameled reliefs. 

Italy was ripe for the genius of "the one great characteristic 
figure of the Italian Renaissance in art" — Michelangelo, dis- 
tinguished as architect, sculptor and painter. He was en- 
couraged in his early efforts by Lorenzo de Medici. His great- 
est triumph was the statue of Moses, "the type of that massive- 
ness of form and intensity of expression which characterized 
all his work." In giving so much of art his influence was such 
that others lost that which constitutes the true artist. So over- 
powering was his genius "that for generations few artists 
thought of anything but imitating the great master. As a 
result, each artist sacrificed his own personality, and sculpture 
lost in Italy the elegance, beauty and force of the Renaissance." 

(3.) Painting. 

The names that represent the Renaissance at its height are 
the following: 

Fra Angelico (1387-1455). This Florentine artist, famous 
for his religious paintings, claimed that his work was the result 
of inspiration and consequently never altered his productions. 
His madonnas and angels are in Rome and Florence. 

Leonardo da Vinci (1452- 15 19), inventor, engineer, architect 
and sculptor, was a Florentine and one of the greatest painters. 



That by which he is best known is the Last Supper, executed 
for the duke of Milan. 

The lasting renown of Michelangelo is to be found in his 
productions in the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican. These con- 
sist of the Last Judgment, considered by some the greatest 
painting in the world, and the ceiling decorations. Standing in 
this chapel he conceives the stupendous plan of depicting the 
world from the Creation to the Judgment. The Last Judgment 
occupied eight years, and contains 314 figures. 

Raphael Sanzio (1483- 1520) has been rightly called the 
"Prince of Painters." Under the influence of Michelangelo 
and Leonardo da Vinci his efforts were directed, while he de- 
veloped a style peculiarly his own. At the age of twenty-five 
he began his great work on the walls of the Vatican, and 
during the same period produced the Sistine Madonna and 
Transfiguration, being engaged upon the latter at the time of 
his death which occurred in his thirty-seventh year. He was 
often spoken of as the Divine Raphael and enjoyed a distinc- 
tion in Rome that seldom comes to men. 

The work of Michelangelo is distinguished from that of 
Raphael in much the same way as is Milton from Shakespeare 
in the realm of poetry. The former represents the epic, while 
Raphael correlates with Shakespeare in the distinction of the 
historic order. 

A great painting like a great poem is the expression of a 
great truth. It is truth seeking expression by artistic repre- 
sentation, so that in Raphael we have a great interpreter of 
Biblical writers, while his characters breathed the spirit of 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



religion. The "Battle of the Milvian Bridge" is no ordinary 
battle scene. It is the end of a mighty conflict in which 
Christianity is victorious over Paganism. Unusual elements 
enter into the scene. Peter's Deliverance from Prison by the 
Angel is one of the most remarkable examples of Chiaro-oscuro 
in existence. The intellectual element is pronounced in all of 
Raphael's work. Many regard the "Disputa" as the greatest 
painting in the world. On the wall opposite this marvellous 
production is "The School of Athens." For one who was not 
a student of philosophy the whole conception and the arrange- 
ment and representation of the elements is remarkable. The 
temple of philosophy in which the thinkers have gathered is 
itself a work of art. Raphael indicates that all speculation 
must rest upon the pure sciences. The three great figures, 
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, are drawn with remarkable ac- 
curacy, Socrates in discussion with his audience, Plato with 
his upraised finger indicating that truth is from above and 
Aristotle pointing to the earth emphasizing the natural sources 
of our knowledge. Within our limited space it is impossible to 
do more than simply call attention to a few of these master- 
pieces which for all time shall immortalize the genius that pro- 
duced them and leave him unrivaled in the field of painting. 

It was Correggio (1494-1534) who developed to the highest 
degree the art of Chiaro-oscuro, the true harmony of light and 
dark effects. He is best known by The Holy Night and 
Nativity of Christ. 

2. The German Renaissance. 

In the sixteenth century German painting reached its highest 



point. "Loftier treatment and more ideal effects tempered the 
German realism and created a great art which never lost its 
national characteristics." 

The two names of special significance are Durer (1471- 
1528), who distinguished himself in etching and the invention 
of the process of printing wood-cuts in two colors. Among 
his copper engravings are Saint Jerome in His Study, Melan- 
cholia, Death and the Devil. The British Museum, and the 
galleries at Munich, Florence and Vienna contain his best 
productions. 

Holbrein (1497-1543), the second great painter of the 
German Renaissance, excelled in portraits. He was the court 
painter of Henry VIII. His greatest painting is the Madonna 
of the Burgomaster Meyer. 

3. The Netherlands. 

Art was given a great stimulus by the Italian influence with- 
out impairing the native development. Rubens (1577-1640) 
was a painter of large conceptions. While living at Antwerp 
he produced his Elevation of the Cross, and Descent from the 
Cross, by which he is best known. 

The most celebrated of the Dutch artists was Rembrandt 
(1606-1669), distinguished for his coloring and blending of 
light and shade. Among his great productions are The Nigh! 
Watch and the Lesson in Anatomy. 

4. Spain. 

The national school of painting was established in the seven- 
teenth century. Two (Trent painters l^elong to this period. 



MEDIEVAL ERA. 



109 



Velasquez (1599- 1660) attained to rare technical perfection in 
his Nativity, and Murillo (1617-1682), the pupil of Velasquez, 
dealt with religious subjects in a masterly manner. His fame 
rests mainly upon the Immaculate Conception, upon which he 
labored a score of times. 

This brief sketch is designed as an outline of this great de- 
velopment from the time of the early learning and the School- 
men to the close of the seventeenth century. The significance 
of such an awakening as the dawn of the modern era must be 
realized at once. It is one of the most important transitional 
periods in human history, restoring vital contributions of the 
ancients and passing on to an enlarging consciousness. There 
could be but one result of such a revival, i. e., the breaking 
away from certain fixed orders and limitations, larger visions 
and a larger individuality. And this is what is awaiting modern 
times to realize and develop to the highest degree. It is this 
to which human struggles tend, the child growing to manhood 
to act for himself and live his life under personal direction 
and achievement. The study of these historic moments is to 
note the progress of this evolution of the race coming to the 
larger individualism and the steps indicating the advance from 
stage to stage. When we enter the next era we shall readily 
understand in what sense there could not be a Renaissance and 
not a Reformation, and how there could not be a Reformation 
without a Renaissance. In other words, it is simply the con- 
tribution of one period to another. The principles of yesterday 
become the practices of to-day. The world is a unit, and it is 
the function of historical research to discover that unity and 



trace the movement and find the fundamental grounds or the 
causes and effects in the world's development. Anything less 
than this is a very limited and inadequate idea of history. 
Again, it is not sufficient to ascertain the immediate reason for 
certain great changes. The real causes very often lie much 
farther back and while overlooked were the things essentially 
operative in the movements that we have assigned to nearer 
causes that lie at our hand. For example, the American 
Revolution is not the result merely of certain attitudes of 
Great Britain to the Colonies calling out opposition and event- 
uating in independence. When we read the Declaration of 
Independence we must first read the Magna Charta. It would 
be a mistake to separate the revolutionary spirit from the trend 
in English history from the time of King John. Thus in the 
light of these brief suggestions let us not fail to see the signifi- 
cance of this period of intellectual and sesthetic awakening in 
what follows, and to bear in mind the fact that it is upon in- 
tellectual developments that all others depend. 

The Chart. 

It will be well at this point for the student to review these 
Medieval Institutions and the Renaissance as given in the 
Chart. Note the central fact and its various connections. In 
a very brief time the Chart will furnish the essential facts as 
could not be done by gathering them together from text books. 

Topics for Study and Suggestions. 
For the Early Learning of the Middle Ages the following 
works are commended : Rashdael's Universities of Europe in 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



the Middle Ages; McCabe's Peter Abelard; Pennsylvania Re- 
prints, Vol. II, 3, 4. 

1. The Golden Age of Scholasticism — the thirteenth century. 
History of All Nations, Vol. IX, 85 f., 126 ff.; X, 347; XI, 31. 

2. The Medici, the patrons of learning. History of All 
Nations, X, 115, 362, 369 ff . ; XI, 218, 219. For the period of 
the New Learning and Renaissance the following works may 
be consulted : Robinson's Western Europe, Ch. xxii ; Thatcher 
and SchwilFs Europe in the Middle Age, Ch. xxiii ; J. A. Sy- 
mond's Short History of the Renaissance, an authoritative 
work. 

3. The labors of Erasmus. In the Pennsylvania Reprints, 
Vol. I, 1, is a letter from Erasmus to Ulrich von Hutten. His- 
tory of All Nations, XI, 25, 27, 40, 43, 92. 

4. Thomas More and Henry VIII. 

5. Dante and his masterpiece. Fisher's Outlines of Univer- 
sal History, p. 307. History of All Nations, IX, 325 f. ; X, 114. 
His influence on Italian patriotism, XVIII, 290. 

6. Machiavelli. History of All Nations, XI, 31, 227 f. 

7. Rabelais as a satirist. History of All Nations, XI, 212, 

435- 

8. Cervantes. His object in writing Don Quixote. 

9. Roman Architecture. History of All Nations, IV, 58, 84, 
128, 301 ; V, 36, 43, 51, 102; VI, 151, 255 ff.; VII, 194, 258, 

319- 

10. Italian sculpture. Michelangelo's Moses. History of 
All Nations, XI, 219, 228 ff., 449, 459. For the Italian painters 



the student is referred to the little volumes published by 
Houghton, Mifflin & Co. These contain a collection of pic- 
tures, an introduction and an estimate of the artist's qualities. 
Special attention is called to the volumes Michelangelo, 
Raphael and Correggio. See also Lodge's The Close of the 
Middle Ages, Ch. xxii, and the last chapter of Europe in the 
Middle Ages, by Thatcher and Schwill. 

11. The Last Judgment. Distinguish the four zones of the 
painting, and note how the physical expressions of body and 
face have delineated the emotions of fear, dread, despair, hope 
and relief. 

12. Raphael's Deliverance of Peter. Note the two stages, 
with special attention to the blending of light and darkness. 

13. The Disputa. The four great zones from the representa- 
tion of God to the Church on earth. What would constitute 
this the greatest painting in the world as it is so regarded by 
some critics? 

14. Sistine Madonna. Note the artistic perfection. Who 
are the characters before the madonna? 

15. The Transfiguration. When Raphael died this painting 
was not completed. Note the different coloring in the lower 
group in the valley. What is the significance of the lower 
scene as given in the gospels? Note with what exactness 
Raphael depicts the historical facts. 

IV. The Commercial Revival. 

One of the most important interests of this period was the 



MEDIEVAL ERA. 



commercial development together with exploration and dis- 
covery. In the early days of the Middle Age commerce was 
greatly hindered by "poor transportation, ignorance of 
economic laws, the want of a money standard, the absence of 
competition and the confusion caused by inroads of the bar- 
barians." But with the rise of towns and cities the foundations 
were laid for modern industrialism. The commune was dis- 
tinguished from the free city in that the former recognized as 
its head the King or noble and rendered feudal dues, while the 
latter was a commonwealth. During the period from 1135 to 
1250 the movement toward better government was actively 
supported hy the merchants who were banded together in the 
form of guilds. 

The question of trade routes and more perfect geographical 
knowledge entered into those discoveries and explorations that 
opened up a new world. Goods from India and the Far East 
were brought to Europe either by the way of the Black Sea 
and the Danube, or by the Persian Gulf, the River Euphrates 
and by sea to the West, or by the Red Sea. These routes were 
closed by the Ottoman Turks, which forced Europe to discover 
a new way to the East. 

Under these necessities travel and exploration had a com- 
mercial interest, and when through the travels of Marco Polo 
it was learned that a vast body of water lay east of China, the 
way was opened for the discoveries of the fifteenth and six- 
teenth centuries. In order to appreciate the full bearing of 
this period upon the new era we are giving but a brief outline 
of this commercial activity and accompanying exploration, 



these to be taken up more fully in connection with American 
History. 

Questions. 

1. Of what did the various guilds consist and why were 
they organized ? 

2. The institution of the Fairs came to its fullest develop- 
ment during the Medieval Age. What purpose did they sub- 
serve? 

3. What was the Third Estate, and what classes did it in- 
clude ? 

4. What cities were included in the Lombard League, in 
what struggle did they become involved and what was the 
cause of it? 

5. Leagues were formed for purposes of protection. What 
was the Hanseatic League and the special object of its forma- 
tion? 

6. Who was Marco Polo and what were the results of his 
travels ? 

7. Who were the leading Portuguese explorers and what did 
they achieve? 

8. What was the idea of Columbus regarding a new route to 
India, who rendered him assistance, and what resulted? 

9. What conclusions were being reached by Copernicus at 
this time and what system of astronomy was being set aside 
by his investigations ? 

10. What other Spanish adventurers followed the lead of 
Columbus, and what did they discover? 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



11. What interest did France take in the New World, and 
who was the leading French explorer? 

12. What was the famous bill issued by Pope Alexander VI, 
and what part did England take in American explorations ? 

13. What effect did these new oceanic routes have upon the 
commercial development ? 

Thus the Medieval Era accomplished its mission. At the fall 
of Rome began a period of disintegration and ignorance. The 
empire of Charlemagne arose and fell. Feudalism became 
dominant, attended with evil and good effects and disappeared 
in the fifteenth century. The Crusades brought to Europe an 
intellectual advantage from contact with the Saracenic civili- 
zation. The Monks were the civilizers of the Middle Age and 
kept burning the torch of knowledge. The early learning 
paved the way for the new learning and literature. Literature 



and art created a new world, enlarging the vision and stimu- 
lating an interest in the things that refine and enrich the soul. 
In all these respects Europe is expanding and man is develop- 
ing by these processes into a larger individuality. He is creat- 
ing for himself a new age, walking steadily from the confine- 
ments of the past into a larger freedom and self-realization. 
It was only necessary for the Ottoman Turk to close the routes 
to India to send him in search of another, and in seeking for 
India he found America, which has become to humanity an- 
other word for Opportunity. All the lines of development 
have been followed so that upon the opening up of a new great 
world man might enter upon his inheritance on American soil 
untrammeled and thus afford the new nation the fullest op- 
portunity in the development of modern civilization. But it is 
sufficient for the present that we grasp the leading facts and to 
see how the dawn of the modern era breaks into view standing 
upon these high places of the Medieval awakening. 



{From the {Fall of GonsiantinopJe fa the Peace of Westphalia 



{Refor motion- d he Sreat Ctwakening 



{Breaking up of {he old order. tJhe general sUr and revival of learning, new inventions 
and discoveries. Political and social forces in the struggle for religious liberty. 



Protestant 

&ermany-JJuther, {Metanchthon, {France-eFarel. 
SwitzerlandSwingli, Galvin at Seneva, 
Sngland-Wycliffe, {fyndale, Srasmus. 
Scotland-fframilton, Wishart, {Knox. 

{France 

1 . c/rom JJouis X I to JSouTs XII, 1461-1515 

{France centralized. WarsofJQouisXWi 
2.{Francis I to&fenry IV, 1515-1610. (Begin- 
ning of modern {France. {Jhe Suises an 
thfuguenots. {Religious civil wars. 
B.Garainal {Richelieu. Power and policies, 

Sermany eFlaly 

l.&rederick 111,1452-98 




<£ast emperor to be 
crowned at {Rome. 
2.{Maximilian\, 1493- 

1519. Snterprises. 
a.Gharles V, 1519-56. 
4.{Ferdinand 1,1556-64 
^.{Maximilian 11,1584-76 
^.{Rudolf 11,1576-1612. 
Gatholic reaction. 
7.{Matthias, 1612-19. 
(Beginning of{fhir- 
ty S/ears' War. 

Ghart 8 



l.&romMmto 

death ofSavonaro> 
la, 1498. Gity States. 
JSedSurope in cult- 
ure, {fhe {Medici over, 
th rown. Savonarola's 
Gonstitution. 

2.Supremacy of {Flor- 
ence. jQeague of%nice 

B.tfnvasions ofjGouisXW 
1499,1507-15. dioly 
jQeague. Gambray. 

4.Spanish in control. 



Gatholic 
I. {Measures of Paul III, 1534-49. 
2,jQoyola and the order of the Jesuits. 
B.Paul IV. {The inquisition. Abolished, 1834. 
4.Gouncil of {/rent, 1545-63. {Reforms. 

Sngland 

A.&rom&fenry VI to (Queen iMary, 1422- 
1558. War of the {Roses, 1455-85. 
2. Slizabe th, 1558-1603. Puritanism. War 
with Spain. England's Solden Ctge. 
8. {fames 1,1608-25. Stuart kings. 
4.Gharles 1, 1625-49. ®oom of divine {Right. 

Spain and the {Netherlands 
1453-1648^ 



1. {Ferdinand and 
{7$abella,i4m. 
GonquestofSranada. 
Golumbus-umeriea. 
2.Gharles\,WW~m. 
Spanish greatness. 



{thirty 3/ears' War 



B.Philipll,lSBS-9S. Sn 
quisiiionMheCtrmada. 

4.Philip III, 1598-1621. 
{thirty fjjears' War. 

H.Philip IV. 1621-65. 
{Rapid declension. 



1. {First stage, 1618-29. 

Sohemian conflict. 

Sermany, Sngland, 

{Holland, {Denmark. 
2.Second sfage,t629-82. 

Swedish struggle. 



3.c/hird stage, 1632-48. 
Swedish and {French 

victories. {Richelieu. 
iDefeat of Sermany. 
Peace of Westphalia, 

1648. germs of treaty 



MODERN ERA-FROM THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE TO THE 

PEACE OF WESTPHALIA 



We enter the last great era of human history, an era that is 
the inheritor of all the past ages. Dividing history into eras 
should not for a moment confuse or alter the fact that has 
been kept in view throughout these studies, i. e., that human 
history is a unit, just as every individual life is a. unit. It 
passes through its periods and we rightly speak of childhood 
and manhood, but it is the same individual in the process of 
growth and development. The same is true of the race. 
There was a time when it was young, young in years and un- 
derstanding. Along the pathway of its life it has marked the 
stages of its development as it has looked upon the nations 
and civilizations which indicate such progress. The racial 
memory dwells upon its Egyptian period, its Babylonian, 
Grecian, Roman and medieval experiences. They all live 
within its recollection, have all entered with all their mighty 
forces into its growth and unfolding. The modern man was 
the primitive child, the medieval youth. History is the record 
of the paths he followed and how he came to follow them. 

To distinguish the modern era and declare that the world 
has passed from its medieval stages is to discover a radical 
change and advance, a distinct mark of difference establishing 
the fact that a new period has been entered, a new life has 



dawned, a new order instituted. In our last study we saw this 
process of enlargement and breaking away from former con- 
ditions. We saw how the great creations of antiquity seemed 
to be lost forever, but how in their recovery a new age was 
born. We saw the race standing again in the midst of high 
ideals and achievements facing a larger future that would 
bring it to its larger self-realization, its larger liberty and in- 
dividualism. To this end all the past has contributed. Every 
argument of Abelard and Duns Scotus, every stanza of Dante 
and every painting of Raphael were so many steps toward that 
dawn that should announce the birth of a new day. 

In stepping into this new day, therefore, let us fully appre- 
ciate all the processes and forces, the struggles, conflicts and 
conquests that have brought us to the light. One writer has 
briefly summarized the four sources of modern civilization : 

"(i) To Greece we are indebted for ideals of beauty in 
literature and art and for those systems of thought upon which 
modern philosophical speculation is modeled. 

(2) From Rome are derived those ideas of government and 
law on which many modern governments and codes are based. 

(3) The Germans gathered from the wreck of the Roman 
Empire the fragments of its political, social and economic in- 



"5 



n6 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



stitutions, and, infusing new vigor into them, transformed 
them into institutions which answer the needs of modern 
society. 

(4) Christianity contributed no less to modern civilization 
than did Greece, Rome and the Germans." 

It is a difficult thing to sharply distinguish these eras with 
reference to certain great events, a difficulty that is emphasized 
by the fact that writers do not divide these great periods in the 
same way. That is true regarding the beginning of the Medie- 
val Era. It is also true respecting the Modern whether, for 
instance, the period of the Renaissance should fall in modern 
times. Sharp lines of demarcation are not usually intended. 
They are relative rather than absolute. 

When we come to the Modern Era, the commencement of 
which we have dated from the fall of Constantinople, certain 
well defined characteristics appear. Among these are the 
tendency to combine smaller into larger states ; the superseding 
of the ecclesiastical by the political as a bond of union; the 
policy, by maintaining a balance of power, of protecting states 
by preventing any from extending its bounds unduly ; the great 
commercial and industrial development together with a wide 
extension of culture and intellectual interests, the growth of 
free speech and public opinion. 

The Protestant Reformation. 

Our preceding study brought us to the dawn of the present 
era. We traced the great revivals of the Renaissance in learn- 
ing, literature and art as also in commerce and discovery. We 



now come to the great religious revival. It was a period of 
great intellectual awakening which could have but one result, 
the breaking away from the old order of things and seeking a 
larger freedom of thought both in religious and other respects. 
The mind refused to be dominated and have its rightful liber- 
ties curtailed and suppressed. It demanded the right to think 
for itself and not have its ideas and conclusions determined 
by existing conditions. This is a peculiar characteristic of 
modern times. For some time humanity had been struggling 
towards this ideal. It came to view in some respects in 
Scholasticism. Certain forms of authority that had been im- 
posed had weakened with the extension of culture and in- 
tellectual development. The spirit of inquiry and criticism 
began to assert itself, and things formerly believed and ac- 
cepted were now questioned. 

The student, however, should be guarded against the mis- 
take of supposing that the Reformation was simply of re- 
ligious import. It had its political significance. Political 
and social forces entered into this struggle for religious liberty. 
The religious was representative of this growing tendency 
towards greater freedom manifested in various interests. The 
Reformation did not create these new conditions, it was one 
of the great results of the new order that had arisen, one of 
the currents in the great stream of progress. It was impossible 
to have the Renaissance and not a Reformation. It was a 
part of that great change that had come over Europe in 
which the struggle for greater freedom and a larger demo- 
cracy had set in. 



MODERN ERA. 



"7 



At the beginning of the sixteenth century Western Europe 
acknowledged the Pope as the head of the Church. But 
there was a growing discontent, and the Pope's authority be- 
gan to be looked upon as inconsistent with the authority and 
rights of civil rulers. Practices in the Church, such as prayers 
for the dead, were called in question. The papal power, that 
at one time was almost absolute in temporal matters, became 
weakened, which was greatly increased by the dispute that 
arose regarding papal succession known as the Great Schism 
of the West. Within the Church itself was a need of reform. 
Thus in the weakening of papal authority, discontent as re- 
lating to that authority, the open disputations respecting 
practices and doctrines, the existing abuses within the Church, 
we find the principle causes of the Reformation. This great 
movement was destined to extend beyond the Church. Tem- 
poral princes regarded the papal power with feelings of 
jealousy. The Teutonic nations generally broke off from the 
Roman Church and refused to acknowledge the Pope's 
authority. Considering the relation between Church and State 
and the position of the Pope in the latter, the Reformation 
marks an era of radical political as well as religious changes. 

/. The Reformation in Germany. 

This was not the beginning of reform movements and doc- 
trines. The Waldenses, the followers of Peter Waldo, were 
excommunicated in 1184. Then came the movement of Huss 
and Jerome of Prague, who were burned at the stake for 
promulgating the following doctrines: 



"(1) That Christ is the only head of the Church; (2) that 
the papacy owes its existence solely to the favor of emperors ; 
(3) that the Scripture confers no power on the Church to 
exercise authority over its members; (4) that a priest with 
pure motives cannot be deprived by the pope of his right to 
preach; (5) that the Holy Scripture is the only source and 
rule of Christian faith." 

Questions and Topics for Study. 

1. What incidents in Luther's religious experience were cal- 
culated to make him the great reformer? 

2. What practice in the Church was the immediate cause 
of the Reformation, and how was it the occasion of Luther's 
Theses ? 

3. Luther's Theses. Kostlin's Life of Luther, pp. 82-94. 
Alzog's Church History, vol. iii, n-15. 

4. By what process was Luther excommunicated from the 
Church? How much was his attack upon the primacy of the 
pope responsible for this? 

5. The Diet of Worms. Seebohm's Protestant Revolution, 
115-135. Walker's Reformation. 

6. What were Luther's activities after his excommunication? 

7. What was the occasion of the Peasant War at this time, 
and how did it issue? 

8. Character and work of Melanchthon. Richard's Philip 
Melanchthon. 

9. Under what two princes were religious Leagues formed? 



n8 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



10. Note the advance made in religious freedom when at the 
Diet of Speyer (1529) "the Protestants took their stand upon 
the modern principle that a man's religion cannot be decided 
for him by the vote of a legislative body, but that it is a ques- 
tion for his own conscience and that he is required to give ac- 
count of himself to God alone." 

11. What great Confession was submitted to the Diet of 
Augsburg and what was the decision of that Diet? What con- 
nection did this have with the Smalkaldic League? 

12. What precipitated the Smalkaldic War, and what did 
the Protestants gain in the Peace of Augsburg? 

77. The Swiss Reformation. 

It should be noted how general the reformation movement 
became. The fires of the Reformation blazed up simultan- 
eously in the various countries. The time was ripe for a 
great religious revolution. Luther was one year older than 
Zwingli, who was to the Swiss Reformation what Luther was 
to the German. Both men were preaching against the sale 
of indulgences at the same time. On the doctrines of the sole 
authority of the Scriptures and Salvation by faith alone both 
agreed, but on the doctrine of the Lord's Supper Zwingli went 
further in his dissent from the Church. Other features en- 
tered into the Swiss Reformation. The Swiss were employed 
as mercenary soldiers by different powers. "Of the demoraliz- 
ing influence of this practice Zwingli became deeply convinced ; 
and his exertions as a Church reformer were mingled with a 



patriotic zeal for the moral and political regeneration of 
Switzerland. Mainly by his influence Zurich separated from 
the jurisdiction of the bishop of Constance, and became Pro- 
testant in 1524. The example of Zurich was followed by 
Berne (1528) and by Basel (1529)." 

Questions. 

1. What was Zwingli's aim as to a republican constitution? 

2. What were the steps that led to a civil war and what 
effect did the defeat of Zurich have upon the Reformation? 

3. When did Geneva come over to the Protestant cause, and 
how did Calvin, the French theologian, come to settle in 
Geneva ? 

4. What was his success in consolidating the religious and 
municipal institutions of Geneva? 

5. In what great work did he set forth and defend reform 
doctrines ? 

7/7. The Reformation in Sweden, Denmark and Norway. 

By means of the Reformation the monarchial power was 
established in the Scandinavian countries. The favor which 
the movement received from these sovereigns enabled it to 
advance more rapidly than was the case in Germany. Lutheran 
teachers were induced to come to Sweden. 



1. What king 
Luther ? 



Questions, 
of Sweden became a zealous follower of 



MODERN ERA. 



119 



2. What was his great declaration as to the supremacy of 
the king at the Diet of Westerns, and what statute was 
framed? 

3. By what ruler were reform measures first instituted in 
Denmark and Norway? 

4. What were the acts and decrees of the Diet of Copen- 
hagen and what great impulse did they give to Protestantism? 

IV. The Reformation in France. 

While Francis was at war with Charles (1521-1526), which 
resulted in the utter defeat of the French army, and the re- 
nouncing of all claims to Milan, Genoa and Naples and to the 
suzerainty of Flanders and Artois, reform doctrines were 
taking hold of the French people. At the University of Paris 
religious enthusiasm was running high. Lectures on theology 
at the University were the most energetic of the reformers. 
While King Francis I was not in sympathy with the new doc- 
trines, his sister, Margaret of Navarre, was an enthusiastic 
advocate of them. 

Questions. 

1. Under the persecution of Francis who was compelled to 
flee to Switzerland prior to the coming of Calvin? 

2. What was the influence of Calvin's great work {Institutes) 
on the French people and in the establishment of churches? 

3. What great massacre occurred in 1572, and what effect 
did it have upon the reform movement? 



V. The Reformation in England and Scotland. 

The Reformation in England was widely different from that 
in Germany. Its origin lay in political causes rather than in 
preceding religious movements or the influence of the new 
learning. Up to the time of Luther the teachings of Wyclif 
and the Lollards had sustained a religious revivalism, while 
the writings of More, Colet and the translation of the Bible by 
Tyndale had exercised a strong influence against the doctrines 
of the Roman Church. It was under Henry VIII that the 
religious revolution was brought about which resulted in mo- 
mentous changes in the relations of Church and State. 

In Scotland it was different. Hamilton, the first great re- 
former came under the influence of Luther and Melanchthon. 
Wishart continued the work of Hamilton and like Hamilton 
suffered martyrdom. John Knox, the great Scottish reformer, 
was the friend and disciple of Wishart, and in time became 
the leading spirit in the opposition to the mass and image wor- 
ship. 

Questions. 

What difficulties did Henry VIII encounter with the pope 
in suing for a divorce? Who was his wife? What archbishop 
declared in Henry's favor? 

2. What was the Act of Supremacy of Parliament and in 
what relation to the Church did it place the king? For the 
text of this Act see Medieval and Modern History, part ii. pp. 
52, 53, by Munro and Whitcomb. 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



3. What effect did this have upon papal authority? 

4. When was the Church of England organized, and in what 
Articles was the faith of the Church expressed? 

5. With what Queen was Knox brought into conflict because 
of his reform doctrines? 

6. Under whose reign and influence was the Reformed Kirk 
of Scotland established? 

VI. The Reformation in Other Countries. 

By the middle of the sixteenth century Protestantism had 
taken deep root in the Netherlands. The struggle that fol- 
lowed between Protestantism and Catholicism was continued 
until the Peace of Westphalia when it came to an end. 

In Bohemia the preaching of John Huss established the new 
doctrines but during the Thirty Years' War Protestantism was 
destroyed. 

In Poland and Hungary Catholicism was finally victorious, 
while in Italy and Spain, after the Council of Trent, Protes- 
tantism practically disappeared. 

The Catholic Reformation. 

One of the results of the Protestant Reformation was the 
Catholic Reaction. It directed attention to abuses in the 
Church recognized by the Council of Trent. It awakened a 
new interest and a deeper devotion which brought to the 
Church a new life, an increased strength, unity and zeal. 

Pope Paul III was the pope of the Catholic Reformation, 
whose devotion to the cause of reform was greatly supported 



by Cardinal Contarini. Their attempt to induce the Protes- 
tant reformers to re-enter the Church was unsuccessful. 

It was during this period of Paul III that the order of the 
Jesuits was founded by Loyola. It received the Pope's sanction 
in 1540. Its members took monastic vows and pledged absolute 
obedience to the pope. "Because of its zealous activity, its 
close relation to the papacy and its ceaseless struggle against 
heresy, the new order was the most effective barrier against 
the growing power of Protestantism." Missionary movements 
developed under this organization. Saint Francis Xavier was 
sent to India, and by the middle of the sixteenth century 
schools and missions were planted throughout Europe, India, 
China, Japan and South America. 

The organization of the Inquisition begun by Paul III was 
completed by Paul IV, the power of which was exerted to the 
fullest extent to stamp out the new faith. Those convicted of 
heresy were subjected to various punishments but not with 
death. But the Inquisition in Spain has come under the con- 
demnation of Catholics as well as Protestants. 

The Council of Trent was convened in 1545 and continued, 
interrupted from time to time, until 1563. One of the prin- 
cipal objects in covening this Council was "the reconciliation 
of the Protestant faction with the Roman Church. The Peace 
of Augsburg, concluded in 1555, made such a reconciliation 
impossible." The dogmas and teachings of the Church were 
left unchanged, but the traffic in indulgences and various 
abuses were condemned. Papal authority was more definitely 
established. The influence of this Council was soon manifested 



MODERN ERA. 



in the better moral and spiritual life of clergy and laity. "The 
old abuses in government and conduct practically disappeared 
at this time and have never again characterized the govern- 
ment of the Church as a whole." 

For the study of this Reaction we would commend the fol- 
lowing works: Ward's Counter-Reformation; Hughes' Loyola 
and the Educational System of the Jesuits; Ranke's History 
of the Popes; Balme's European Civilization. 

France. 

The Hundred Years' War left Charles VII undisputed 
master of France. Under Louis XI, Henry VII and Fer- 
dinand the monarchy was greatly strengthened and extended 
in France, England and Spain. The period from 1453 to 1517 
is a period of rivalry, and the commencement of the struggles 
relative to the balance of power. It is a period of invention 
and geographical exploration bringing into existence the New 
World, effecting a new civilization. Feudalism and chivalry 
had largely passed away. Centralization of power under 
Charles VII was opposed and the dissatisfied nobles, as also the 
Dauphin, engaged in intrigues. Under these conditions of 
general distrust and suspicion Charles practically starved to 
death so fearful was he of having his food poisoned. 

While feudalism and a State religion have gone under in 
France they are not entirely dead. They continue the struggle 
for existence and before the French Revolution again make 
their appearance. Suppressed by the forceful measures of 



Richelieu, absolutism takes their place. "The unwonted con- 
centration of power stimulates France to rival the Hapsburgs 
and to push her boundaries outward toward Italy, Burgundy, 
Flanders and Spain. These struggles for power within and 
without, confused with the course of religious reform and an 
increase in material prosperity, make up the story of these two 
centuries in France." 

Questions and Topics for Study. 

The student will find the following works helpful: The 
Growth of the French Nation, by Adams; The Growth and 
Decline of the French Monarchy, by Mackinnon. 

1. In following the policy of his father what were the 
measures of Louis XI ? 

2. What did the nobles intend by the "League of the Public 
Weal," and who stood at the head of the League? 

3. What caused the fall of Burgundy? 

4. What was the distinction of the regency of Anne? 

5. What was the ambition of Charles VIII, and what series 
of wars sapped the resources of France and hindered Italy's 
development ? 

6. Note the prosperity under Louis XII. What wars did he 
wage and what did they do for France ? What was the League 
of Cambray? 

7. The reign of Francis I marks the beginning of modern 
France. Trace the course of events to the period of Henry II. 

8. The transitional period of Henry II. What persecutions 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



did he institute? What part did he take in the Smalkaldic 
War? What did France gain and lose in the Wars of Henry? 

9. Who were the Guises? What civil war arose and con- 
tinued for 32 years? 

10. France was nearly ruined by the Valois Kings. Who 
was the last of that line? What was the War of the Three 
Henry's ? 

11. Henry of Navarre, by Willert. 

12. What reorganization and international designs developed 
during the reign of Henry IV? 

13. Disorder followed the assassination of Henry IV, and 
the States-General was convened in 1614. Richelieu's abilities 
attracted attention. To what eminence was France raised 
by this great statesman and by what measures? How did he 
turn the Thirty Years' War from a religious to a political 
contest? Crushing opposition to central authority how did he 
make possible the absolutism of Louis XIV? 

14. Richelieu. Lodge's Cardinal Richelieu. 

15. Descriptions of the period by Dumas in The Three 
Musketeers and Marguerite de Valois. 

England. 

Having traced events in France to the Peace of Westphalia, 
but leaving the discussion of the Thirty Years' War as a 
separate topic, we return to the beginning of the period to 
note the movements in England. The student will remember 
that our last studies in this State brought us to the close of 



the Hundred Years' War. We must keep in mind the general 
character of the period as we have thus far studied the con- 
ditions under the Renaissance and Reformation. The various 
forces in Western Europe would seem to produce nothing but 
confusion, but as these forces are clearly understood, and the 
events properly related, we shall see how they all labored to- 
gether towards modern conditions. The progress of this 
period, and more especially the conditions produced that de- 
termined the greater modern progress, seemed at times to be 
utterly lost in the stress of war. But such was not the case. 
Higher ideals were struggling with mighty forces, and while 
at times were apparently lost in the turmoil, they emerged 
from it all eventually with a true democracy established, a 
settledness in religion and a marvelous extension of culture. 
In the midst of such restlessness, intrigue and conflict, the Age 
of Elizabeth is to appear. England's Golden Age in literature 
and her high political position, and the theory of the Divine 
Right of Kings comes to its doom. It is therefore important 
that we see the direction of these tendencies working to the 
one great end of a purer democracy, greater political and re- 
ligious liberty and a larger civilization. 

Questions and Topics for Study. 

This period falls into four general divisions : 
1. The Wars of the Roses. The idea had become fixed that 
the crown was the property of a family. 



MODERN ERA. 



123 



(a) Between what houses were these wars waged, what 
were the causes and what kings were involved? 

(b) By whom were the two houses united at the close of 
these wars? 

(c) What were the positive results? 

(d) Period of the Wars of the Roses. Bulwer-Lytton's 
Last of the Barons. 

(e) Shakespeare's Henry VI and Richard III. 

2. Tudor Supremacy. 

"The chief result of the Wars of the Roses was the com- 
plete humbling before the throne of both Parliament and 
nobility." Thus the way was opened for absolutism. 

(a) What kings reigned during this period ? 

(b) What were the policies of Henry VII? 

(c) What were the leading events in the reign of Henry 
VIII? How did his measures impoverish England and check 
the new era? 

(d) Under whom came the Catholic reaction and what was 
the character of her reign? 

(e) Shakespeare's Henry VIII. 

(f) Time of Edward VI. The Prince and the Pauper, by 
Mark Twain. 

3. The Elizabethan Age. 



From a defenceless and devastated condition, rent by 
economic, religious and political ruptures, England in this 
period makes a vast advance in politics and religion, industrial 
stability and the creation of a glorious literature. This is the 
most fascinating age of English history. 

(a) What line did Elizabeth represent? What were her 
religious policies and her attitude to Puritanism? 

(b) What series of events brought to an end Catholic 
monarchy? What Queen was the leading figure? 

(c) The Armada. Creasy's Decisive Battles. 

(d) The Golden Age. What great names belong to this 
period in creating its marvelous literature in poetry and prose? 

4. The passing of Divine Right. 

"Two contests of divine right of kings with democracy and 
of religious freedom with intolerance, run through the entire 
period, and to them attaches the chief significance of the first 
Stuart reigns." 

(a) Whom did Elizabeth name as her successor? How did 
his conduct stimulate opposition and plots? 

(b) What was Raleigh's connection with State affairs? 

(c) Who followed James? What wars belong to this period 
and how did they issue? What great document was added to 
the English Constitution? 



124 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



(d) What interest attaches to the Long Parliament, and 
what was the Grand Remonstrance? 

(e) Trace the events of the civil war to the doom of divine 
right, bringing to a close the period in which England "had 
fought her great battles of democracy and conscience." 

Germany. 

We return to the beginning of the period to trace the events 
in this State from the point that we left them at the fall of 
Constantinople. The student should review the conditions of 
the Holy Roman Empire of that period and the beginning of 
the reign of Ferderick III. 

The period falls into three sections. 

Questions and Topics for Study. 

1. The reign of Frederick III. 

(a) What were his ambitions regarding the House of Haps- 
burg? 

(b) What was the general character of his reign and to 
what House at his death did the imperial dignity pass ? 

2. The Reign of Maximilian I. 

(a) What was his great peace measure? What occasioned 
the Imperial Chamber and the Aulic Council? 

(b) In what wars did he engage, and what was his attitude 
to the Reformation? 



3. From the Accession of Charles V to the Peace of West- 
phalia. 

For the period of Charles V consult Johnson's Europe in 
the Sixteenth Century, pp. 129-252. 

(a) The character of Charles. 

(b) His great aim. "At the beginning of his reign Charles 
set before himself three great tasks — to hold a general council 
of the Church for its purification, to lead a crusade against 
the Turks and to raise the Holy Roman Empire to its ancient 
glory.' 

(c) What resulted from his wars with France? 

(d) What was his connection with the Council of Trent? 

(e) Why did he abdicate the crown, and how well did he 
succeed in accomplishing his three tasks? 

(f) Trace the Catholic Reaction to the Peace of Westphalia. 

Italy. 

Two things stand out prominently in this period of Italian 
history — her preeminence in culture, and her lack of national 
unity. The former of these two facts was clearly indicated in 
our study of the Renaissance. In this she led all Europe, de- 
veloping her culture in the midst of political turmoil. At the 
epoch of the French invasions "Italy was the most prosperous 
as well as the most enlightened and civilized country in 
Europe. Its opulent and splendid cities were the admiration 
of all visitors from the less favored countries of the North." 



MODERN ERA. 



125 



But she was devoid of national unity, her political history con- 
sisting of that of various cities and States. While far in 
advance in culture of the other nations, yet when compared 
with them politically her inferiority presented a pathetic 
picture. "The country was made up of discordant States. 
Venice was ambitious of conquest; and the pontiffs in this 
period, to the grief of all true friends of religion, were ab- 
sorbed in Italian politics, being eager to carve out principalities 
for their relatives." 

Questions and Topics for Study. 
I. To the breaking up of the Venetian League. 

(a) Describe a City- State under the control of an absolute 
ruler. 

(b) When did foreign intervention begin, and to what call 
did Charles VIII of France respond? Headed by Venice how 
strong was the opposition to Charles? Note the importance 
of this invasion to the French in coming in contact with the 
culture of the Italian Renaissance then at its height. 

(c) What was the influence of the Medici family in Flor- 
ence? Why did Florence not join the Venetian League? 

(d) What was the political situation when Savonarola be- 
came prominent. What was the character of his Constitution 
and why did he meet with bitter opposition? 

(e) Savonarola. Clark's Savonarola, His Life and Times. 

(f) Florence in the time of Lorenzo de Medici. George 
Eliot's Rotnola. 



(g) Trace the events from the revolt against Florentine 
supremacy to the breaking up of the Venetian League. 

2. French Invasions under Louis XII. 

Note the events of the three Italian Wars and the various 
complications. In the end in what state did it leave Italy, 
what did the Holy League accomplish, and what became of 
French designs? 

3. Spanish rule. 

(a) How was this supremacy gained ? 

(b) What was the influence of Spain upon Italy in com- 
merce and intellectual culture? 

Spain and the Netherlands. 

The great importance of this period to the world lay in cer- 
tain inventions and discovery. The use of gunpowder and the 
compass and the invention of printing with movable type by 
Gutenberg were revolutionary in their various fields. 

Questions and Topics for Study. 
1. From the rise of Spanish power to Charles I. 

(a) What effected the union of Castile and Ajagon? 

(b) In what way did the conquest of Granada contribute to 
Spain's great prestige in Europe? 



126 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



(c) State the principal facts bearing upon the discovery of 
America, and the measure defining the territory each country 
might claim. 

(d) What were the other conquests of Ferdinand? 

(e) What was the distinction of Charles I? 

2. From Philip II to the close of the period. From the 
death of Charles dates the decline of Spain. 

(a) When did Spain come into possession of the Nether- 
lands, and when did they revolt? 

(b) When were the Philippine Islands taken, and how long 
after that was the Spanish naval power destroyed by the Eng- 
lish? 

(c) What in the policies of Philip II and Philip III con- 
tributed to the decline of Spain? 

(d) Under whose reign did Spain suffer the loss of Portu- 
gal and the Netherlands, at the close of what war? 

(e) The Dutch struggle for liberty. Motley's Rise of the 
Dutch Republic. 

The Thirty Years' War. 

Inasmuch as this great war, attended with far-reaching con- 
sequences, involved so many nations : Germans, Swedes, Danes, 
French, it will be well for the student to review the political 
situation of these various countries at the beginning of the 
war (1618). The great battles with the exception of one were 
fought on German soil. It began as a contest between the 



Catholic and Protestant princes of Germany and involved 
nearly all the States of the Continent, but finally the religious 
significance faded away and it "degenerated at last into a 
bitter and cruel struggle for political power and extension of 
Territory." The war may be divided into three periods or 
stages. 

Questions. 

The following works are recommended : Gindely's History 
of the Thirty Years' War. History of All Nations, vols, xii, 
xiii. Three of Schiller's great dramas are based upon the 
events of the war: Wallenstein's Camp, Wallenstein's Death 
and The Piccolomini. 

1. The First Period (1618-1629). The Bohemian Conflict. 

(a) What incident in Donauworth precipitated the struggle? 

(b) What were the Catholic successes, what political issues 
were involved and by 1625 what powers had interfered? 

(c) What was the distinction of Wallenstein in the conflict? 

(d) What was the significance of the Edict of Restitution, 
and what would its execution have meant for Protestantism? 

2. The Second Period (1629- 1632). 

(a) What were the political conditions in Sweden, and what 
considerations led it to interfere in the war? 

(b) What were the successes of Gustavus and how did the 
fall of Magdeburg involve neutral powers ? 



MODERN ERA. 



127 



(c) The fall of Magdeburg. Wakeman's European His- 
tory, 88-90. 

Note that with Gustavus the religious element of the war 
disappears. 

3. The Third Period (1632-1648). 

It is during this period that the influence of Richelieu be- 
came more definitely felt. 

(a) How did the death of Wallenstein affect German in- 
terests in the war? 

(b) What interest had France in the war and with whom 
did she become allied? 

(c) What effect did the French- Swedish victories have 
upon the war? 

(d) When was the Peace of Westphalia signed and how 
did its terms affect the various States and Catholic and Pro- 
testant territory? 

The cruelties of this long war beggar description. "The 
Treaty of Westphalia marks the real breaking up of the old 
Empire. The pope refused to sanction the treaty, but this fact 



was set aside by both the Catholics and Protestants, and at this 
time the direct influence of the pope in European politics 
ceases. The House of Hapsburg lost the preponderance which 
it had enjoyed since the time of Charles V. The machinery of 
the Empire still remained ; there was still a nominal emperor 
and the Diet still met. But the real empire now became almost 
purely Austrian and the German States no longer dreamed of 
union, but were all governed by their princes with all the 
powers of kings." 

The Chart. 

Having noted the great events of this period it will be well 
to gather up the leading facts and relations by the Chart. Note 
the length of the period. This review will enable us to ap- 
preciate the great importance of this period in religious and 
political development, and the mighty struggles that ensued. 
We should see by what processes the religious revolution was 
brought about and what it involved in these European conflicts. 
The developments in each State should be carefully noted, and 
then the international relations. At the close of the Thirty 
Years' War we should have a pretty clear conception of the 
historic situation at the end of this first great period of the 
Modern Era. 



&, 



/7rom Peace of "Westphalia to French /Revolution 



Sngland 



absolutism of jCoujs XIV. 1643-1715. 



l.Gentral Suropean figure. 
2.d~fuguenols. Sdict of /Nantes revoked. 
3.Wars of jCouis. ^Devolution, on diol- 
land,1672, Augsburg jQeague, 1688, 
Spanish Succession, 1701-1713, Peace of 
1Itrecht,1713. 
An (Toe of Gulture. 




l.dVational Academy of Ctri. 
2.J2iteraiure. <Descartes, Pascal, Fenelon, 
jGaFontaine, /Racine, /Moliere. 

Failure of Absolutism 



/Regency of Philip and jQouisXV. 



1715-1774. From the war of Polish 
Succession to end of Seven Qfears'War^ 
jCouisXW. 1774-1792. 



/furgot's policies. /Jhe /Jhird Sslale. 
legislative Assembly. <5 Tie king executed^' 
Gonditions jCeading to the /Revolution. 



Sconomic, social, Judicial. 
/The awakening by such men as /Rousseau. 
/Northern Surope 



Gommonwealth and Protectorate 
1^1649-1659. diouse of Gommons supreme 
AfGromwell jQord Protectorate. /Talents. 
<7 /Restoration. 1660-1688. 

1. Gharles II, 1660-1685. tffabeas Gorpus Ctci. 

2. games II, 1685-1688. /Rebellion, revolution. 
From William and /Mary to Queen (Tnne. 




1689-1714. SHI of /Rights. War of Spanish 
Succession. Sngland and Scotland united. 
Gulture. / Milton. $unvan, /Dryden, /Newton, 
Swift, Steele, Addison, Pope, JSocke. 

Siouse of rf~fanover 



/Seorae 1.1714-1727 

&/Walpole first minster. War with Spain 
George II. 1727-1760. 
\<£/War of Austrian Succession. 



*itt prime minister. {British Indian empirt 
r &eorpe III. 1760-1788. 

American independence, 1775-1781. 
/Religion. J&terature. Art. Science. /Discovery . 



Prussia 



From /Frederick Wil- 
liam, 1640-88, to Fred- 
erick the Sreal, 1740- 
86. Seven R/ears War. 

Partition of Poland. 



/R 



ussia 



From /Jartar dom- 
ination to Peter the 
Sreat. /Northern War. 

From Peter, 1682-1725, 
to Galherine II. 




Wesleys, diume, Sray, Siogarth, Wail. 
Austria and /Netherlands 
^Netherlands 



Aust 



ria 



X.cCeopold 1,1657-1705 
2.GharlesVl, 1711-40. 

Spanish Succession 
Q./Maria/Jheresa and 

Joseph II, 1765-1790. 



/Maritime supremacy. 
/Republican Party. 
Spanish /Wether lands. 

Siven to Austria 1713. 

/Rebellion, 1788. 



Ghart 9 



FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 



We pass from one great period to another. History is like 
a diversified landscape. The latter presents itself to the eye 
as valleys and elevations. We see the paths by which we rise 
from the plains to the heights, and pass again from the heights 
to other plains. So in the historic procedure there are the 
great landmarks, the high places, so to speak, toward which 
the nations have advanced by what may be called transition 
periods, or the lower levels of the world's course. They are 
all related and we must not overlook the valleys connecting 
the hills, as the historical eye rests upon the peaks, nor should 
we fail to see how the paths lead us from the lower levels to 
the grand summits. It is during periods of apparent quiet 
that conditions arise that issue in great stirring moments of 
revolution and reconstruction, and the race is brought to a 
new eminence. In the midst of what seems to be irrational 
destructiveness arise great principles that become the open 
pathways of human conduct — thus the contribution of one 
age or period to another, and in it all a great historic land- 
scape showing the pathway of the nations. Hence the study 
of history is the cultivation of that intellectual vision and un- 
derstanding so as to see this diversified landscape of our life 
and development in its greatest distances, and to discern the 
relations between plain and mountain peak, or the underlying 
causes of national and international conditions. 

These observations are apropos to the new period upon 
which we enter. For nearly a century and a half the great 



129 



states of Europe are engaged in working out mighty problems 
and creating others, these leading to one of the most critical 
moments in modern history. For example, if Great Britain 
had done less than she did from Cromwell to the Georges she 
would not have accomplished what she did during the Napol- 
eonic era; and if in France economic conditions and intel- 
lectual awakening had not developed as they did the French 
Revolution would not have arisen, and the situation would not 
have existed for the rise and achievements of Napoleon. 

These studies are designed to call the attention of the stu- 
dent to these fundamental relations, and to leave it to the 
text books to supply the details of the history, while the charts 
indicate and relate the leading facts. 

We have already called attention to the necessity of being 
familiar with important dates. They are the milestones of 
history. It is impossible to keep in mind every date and it is 
a question whether it is advisable to make the attempt. But 
every student should be familiar with the great dates up to 
this time, and that from the Peace of Westphalia to the French 
Revolution was a period of 141 years, or from 1648 to 1789. 
Note how ali the facts of the chart are carried to this date. 

France. 

Feudalism has ceased to exist, and upon its destruction the 
events that lie before us logically follow. By the work of 



130 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



Richelieu absolute rule was rendered possible. The Peace of 
Westphalia marks the passage from religious to political con- 
flicts. "The Puritan Revolution, the French civil wars and 
the Thirty Years' War ended the primacy of religious ques- 
tions and gave a forward impulse to the power of England, 
France, Sweden and Brandenburg. These untried rivals and 
others yet undistinguished are now to match forces. Might is 
to make right ; and amid extraordinary international faithless- 
ness, Sweden, Spain, Turkey and Austria are to go down in 
defeat before France, Russia, Brandenburg-Prussia and Eng- 
land." 

The "mercantile system" in France illustrates the attempt 
during this period on the part of the nations to improve the 
condition of the middle class. In this, and also the develop- 
ment of culture, sovereigns and the people engage. Mon- 
archy, supported by great armies, reached its zenith. It was 
a period of struggle and contest for the possession of thrones. 
While France gains the ascendency over Austria England by 
the war of Spanish Succession restores the equilibrium. Then 
by the increasing power of Prussia, Eastern and Western 
Europe are bound together into a unitary system. Three 
events of the first importance belong to this period : first, the 
fall of Sweden and rise of Russia and Prussia; second, Eng- 
land's supremacy on the sea and her loss of the American 
colonies ; third, the political and intellectual conditions lead- 
ing to the French Revolution. 



/. The Political Conditions of the Period of Louis XIV, 1643- 
I7I5- 
It was the work of Cardinal Richelieu that paved the way 
for this period. By it Northern Europe was freed from 
Southern Europe. But while he made possible the glorious ad- 
vances of France, he also made possible the despotism of her 
rulers who entered into the fruits of his labors in the absolute 
rule his work established. 

1. The rule of Mazarin. To the Peace of Pyrenees (1659). 
Louis XIV was but five years old when this ambitious Italian 
statesman was placed in control of the government by Riche- 
lieu. During the rebellion of the Fronde (1648-1653) he was 
compelled to take refuge in Cologne. Upon his return, after 
the cessation of trouble, the restoration of monarchial power 
was expressed in his declaration, "I am the State." 

2. Louis XIV, the central European figure. 

The political conditions were such as to minister to his love 
of power, pomp and splendor, and to exercise the absolutism 
which distinguished his reign. During the fifty years of his 
personal rule he devoted eight hours daily to the work with 
which he occupied himself. To Colbert he committed the 
finances of the kingdom and thus protected himself against' 
the depletion of his personal authority. Under Colbert's 
management canals were constructed, manufactures encour- 
aged, the French navy developed and the militia organized. 

The ambition of Louis and his people was to occupy the 
dominant place in Europe, which was then on the verge of a 
great change. Old religious ideals had passed away. The 



MODERN ERA. 



131 



theory of the divine right of kings was accepted in France, 
and Louis was quick to see how such an attitude would greatly 
enhance his ambitions, and made it a point to impress, not 
only upon his own subjects, but upon other European states 
the assumption that to God only was he responsible for his 
actions and administration. "The nation was bribed into 
silence by displays which revealed to the world the greatness 
of the Grand Monarch" and "all Europe was impressed by the 
dignity which resulted from the embodiment in one person of 
the grandeur of a great nation during this unparalleled reign." 
Great was the influence of Louis upon Europe which borrowed 
his language, and casting away the religious restraints of an 
earlier era abandoned itself to a gay and festive life. About 
Louis the nobility of the French court swarmed, pressing 
claims for kingly favor. Culture was encouraged, the king 
giving his patronage to poets, scholars and artists. Libraries 
were established, academies of art and science were founded 
and opportunities for astronomical observations provided. 
"The palace at Versailles, and its statues, fountains and gar- 
dens, furnished a pattern which all the rest of Europe aspired 
to copy. Everything there wore an artificial stamp, from the 
trimming of the trees to the etiquette of the ballroom. But 
there was a splendor and fascination which caused the French 
fashions, the French language and literature, with the levity 
and immorality which traveled in their company, to spread in 
the higher circles of the other European countries." 

When Louis XIV came to the throne foreign conquest and 
Machiavellian conceptions were becoming dominant ideals, 



and in his aggressions Louis acted under the impulse of the 
time. Germany divided into a host of sovereignties became a 
prey to his designs; he seized, under a shallow pretext, the 
Spanish Netherlands. His armies were mighty, but in his 
war on Holland, inspired by the manner in which the Dutch 
had thwarted him, he found himself at war with practically 
all Europe. His fleet was destroyed and France was im- 
poverished and exhausted of her resources. The alliance 
against the king was too strong and permanent for any hope 
of conquering his enemies. Then followed his war of the 
Augsburg League, which League was secretely organized 
against him by continental Europe after his quarrel with the 
pope, the persecution of the Huguenots and the alienation of 
his allies, the Turks, Sweden and Poland. After ten years of 
conflict France was in a deplorable state, her coinage debased, 
taxes doubled and corruption supreme. 

The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713) again 
brought France into conflict with the nations. While Louis 
was forming a plan to divide Spain by treaty the Spanish king 
died, having at the last moment willed his kingdom to France, 
thus breaking faith with England and Holland. William 
III organized the Grand Alliance against France, and in May, 
1702, a general war upon Louis was declared. For eleven 
years it was waged on the sea in America, Spain, Italy, in the 
Empire and the Netherlands. The king of France was van- 
quished and humbled. The peace of Utrecht ( 1713) recognized 
certain facts : "The rise of Prussia, Spain's choice of a king, 
the importance of France upon the continent and of Great 



132 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



Britain's commercial and naval supremacy. It organized 
powerful states to control French ambition, but in vain for- 
bade the alliance of France and Spain. Seventeenth century 
political questions were thus solved. In Louis' repulse and the 
disaster of Sweden and Turkey with the rise of England, 
Russia and Prussia, there came the complexities of a new 
century — the Franco-Prussian question, the Eastern question 
and the English-French rivalry in three continents. Louis 
XIV had dissipated all the resources which he had inherited." 

II. An Age of Culture. 

With the death of Louis XIV the first great section of the 
period came to a close. In the brilliancy and agitation of his 
reign a great impulse was given to things more abiding. It 
was a golden age in culture. In it Louis found that which 
would add to the glory of his reign. When he ascended the 
throne there was no French school of sculpture and painting, 
and a national academy was founded. In the department of 
painting Lebrun, Paussin and Champagne were brought forth, 
whose productions showed great merit. 

It is in the realm of literature, however, that special interest 
attaches to the brilliancy of this period. At this time France 
had the honor of producing the intellect that should give birth 
to Modern Philosophy. Descartes opened up the new method 
in the realm of metaphysics. Setting aside all the disquisitions 
of the past this brilliant thinker worked out his system of 
"innate ideas," and by 1650 his doctrines were laying hold of 



Europe. Pascal and Bossuet, the former by his polemical 
writings and the latter by the pulpit, gave the French language 
a new power. The science of education was developed by 
Fenelon, Boileau was the poetic critic of the time and La Fon- 
taine wrote his tales and fables. The French drama was copied 
by Europe, and until the time of Wordsworth and Goethe 
maintained this supremacy. French comedy was originated 
by Moliere, and his plays take the highest rank among modern 
comedies. 

These are among the contributions of the period that placed 
France in the forefront of Europe and made her king the 
central figure in European politics and society. Absolutism 
had its opportunity during this long reign, the second longest 
in modern times, but the artificiality of the period could not be 
long sustained. 

77/. The Period of Louis XV and Louis XVI. 

Instead of taking up at this point the period in English 
history contemporaneous with that of Louis XIV it will be 
well for us to trace the movement in France to the period of 
the Revolution. 

The death of Louis left the nation without a leader dis- 
united and in a certain state of disintegration. This period is 
to witness the failure of absolutism. Louis declared that he 
had been too fond of war and his last counsel to his successor 
was not to imitate him in that, but to lighten the burdens of 
his people. 



MODERN ERA. 



133 



1. The regency of Philip and Louis XV, 1715-1774. 

Europe now entered upon a transitional period characterized 
by such attitudes on the part of the people as to indicate that 
the sovereign was not supreme, that the divine right of kings 
was a myth, and the development of the idea that government 
was by the people. 

Philip, the nephew of Louis XIV, and chairman of the coun- 
cil of regency for the child Louis XV, was made absolute re- 
gent. Under him vice in the court became flagrant. He 
favored religious toleration until it provoked so much op- 
position that he took the opposite course, persecuted the 
Protestants and drove many from the country. In the midst 
of financial disaster in connection with "the Mississippi bub- 
ble" Philip determined to re-establish the policy of absolutism. 
But he had already opposed the theory of divine right, and 
with the new vision of the French people but little strength 
could attach to the old policy. 

2. The wars of Louis XV. 

At the death of Philip, in 1723, European alliances were 
going to pieces, and uncertainty prevailed regarding the forma- 
tion of new ones. Three wars distinguished this period : First, 
the War of Polish Succession, in which Spain allied herself 
with France in the attempt to place upon the throne of Poland 
the father-in-law of Louis XV. This was carried to a far- 
reaching significance in setting forth the danger that lay in an 
alliance between France and Spain, and especially in the at- 



tempt to curtail Russia by placing Turkey in opposition to her. 
This gave new emphasis to the Eastern question and the bal- 
ance of power which has had an increasing significance in its 
bearing upon European politics to the present time. 

Second, the War of Austrian Succession, 1740. This war, 
opened by the claims of Frederick the Great of Prussia, be- 
came general and extended and, "during twenty-three years and 
under various names, decisively fought out the real questions 
of eighteenth century Europe — the balance of power and the 
ownership of the world's colonies." American interests were 
involved, and when England and France agreed to restore 
their conquests the American boundaries were left undeter- 
mined. 

Third, the Seven Years' War, 1748- 1756. In this war all 
Europe ranged itself against England and Prussia. France 
was defeated in India and America, at Minden and Rossbach. 
With the exception of France all the participants in this great 
war reaped some benefit, while to France it was disastrous. 

3. Louis XVI. (1774-1792.) 

Turgot, the ablest economist and French minister of the 
century, came to the leadership under Louis XVI, taking as 
his motto, "No repudiation, no loans, no increased taxes." His 
land tax upon all classes and other reforms secured the enmity 
of the nobility, and he was laid aside by the king. 

In the midst of the war of American independence, Necker 
was the successor of Turgot. France's part in this war in- 



134 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



creased the national debt a billion and a half francs. Necker 
fell under the queen's displeasure and was dismissed. 

Then came the ministers of the queen, Marie Antoinette, 
who gained supremacy over the king. Under Calonne and 
Brienne, perplexities increased until a general demand was 
made for the "States-General" which was summoned by the 
king, May i, 1789, when the indications of rebellion were 
apparent. "Thus absolutism acknowledged its incapacity and 
in appealing to the people ascribed to them the source of 
political power." The winter of 1788-89 found France in a 
state of bankruptcy and famine and about to enter a period of 
revolution, terror and death that should shake the nation to 
its very center. 

This brief outline of Absolutism and its significant fail- 
ure is designed to bring forward the forces operative during 
this period, to point out the direction of tendencies, the ele- 
ments of strength and weakness of the nation, and the end to 
which, under various conditions, it must inevitably drift. This 
will appear with still greater clearness when we take up the 
causes of the Revolution in our study of that period. 

Questions and Topics for Study. 

The following works will be found very helpful: The 
Ancient Regime, by Taine. Arthur Young's Travels in 
France, giving the situation during the period from 1787- 1789. 
Adams' Growth of the French Nation. Perkins' France Un- 
der the Regency, and France Under Louis XV. European 



History, by Hassall, Chs. II, IV, VI, X, XII, XIV. Gibbins' 
History of Commerce in Europe. James' Great Commanders 
of Europe. 

1. What caused the rebellion of the Fronde? 

2. What did France gain by the Peace of Pyrenees? 

3. State the leading achievements of Colbert. 

4. What was done by Marquette, Joliet and LaSalle in the 
Mississippi Valley? 

5. What caused the failure in French colonization? 

6. What was the Edict of Nantes and why annulled? 

7. What was the War of Devolution? 

8. What caused the War of the Augsburg League, and 
what were the terms of the Treaty of Ryswick? 

9. What countries engaged in the War of the Spanish Suc- 
cession, and what was granted by the Peace of Utrecht? 

10. State some of the plays of Moliere. 

n. The Huguenots. The Little Huguenot, by Max Pem- 
berton. The Huguenot, by G. P. R. James. 

12. Who were the Jansenists, and why persecuted? 

13. What bank did John Law establish and what conse- 
quences attended the scheme? 

14. What was the state of things left by the War of Polish 
Succession ? 

15. What brought about the Seven Years' War, and how 
were the States allied? 

16. On what basis did Turgot favor a land tax? 

17. Turgot. Say's Turgot. 



MODERN ERA. 



135 



18. What part did France take in the war of American in- 
dependence? 

19. Marie Antoinette. Saint Amand's Marie Antoinette and 
the End of the Old Regime. 

20. Dumas' The Man in the Iron Mask. Who was he? 

21. What significance attaches to Louis' call for the States- 
General, and what one great fact stands out in the study of 
this period? 

England. 
In our last study of England we traced the history in Eng- 
lish development from the Wars of the Roses to Cromwell and 
Charles I, and the doom of the divine right of kings. It 
carried us, including England's part in the Thirty Years' 
War, to the Peace of Westphalia. A review of English in- 
stitutions and the growth of English liberties will invest our 
present study with large interest, while the study of the 
Commonwealth should be of peculiar interest to Americans 
who have inherited the liberties struggled for and gained by 
our English kinsmen. It was because the American Revolu- 
tion had its great antecedent on English soil and the prin- 
ciples of liberty were established in the mother country that 
a new chapter was added to this great development, already 
familiar to the British people, when America declared her 
independence. Living as we do so essentially in the history 
of this struggle for liberty, and being so vitally related to it 
in our English connections, the story of the organization of 
the English republic upon the fall of the monarchy should be 
peculiarly instructive. 



/. The Commonwealth and Protectorate, 1 649-1660. 

We have already seen the conditions in France during this 
same period. While Absolutism was holding sway there 
under Louis XIV, the English Monarchy was already abol- 
ished, the doom of divine right declared. The latter was a 
longer time in taking hold of the French people. The brief 
period from the time of the fall of the monarchy to the Res- 
toration was one of great significance in its influence upon 
English ideas and policies. It was an era that was calculated 
to leave a definite impression for all time for "the epoch of the 
Commonwealth of England is one of the great links in general 
historical progress," a progress in those liberties into which 
we have come and the boast of twentieth century civilization. 
The importance that attaches to this moment is, therefore, 
not to be measured by the period of the Commonwealth and 
Protectorate but by the abiding influence which it exercised. 

1. Government by the House of Commons. 

The Rump Parliament consisted of those members in sym- 
pathy with the revolutionists. The House of Lords was 
abolished as useless and dangerous, while Royalty was de- 
clared to be dangerous, burdensome and inimical to the free- 
dom and safety of the people. 

2. The Council of State. 

To this body, consisting of forty-one members, was com- 
mitted the administration of public affairs, who were required 



136 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



to sign a document approving the king's trial and the abolition 
of the House of Lords. But the new government had its trials 
and problems. Refusing to listen to petitions of a democratic 
and socialistic nature, it was looked upon as tyrannous. Many 
royalists fled from the country. Scottish commissioners who 
had opposed the execution of Charles I declared the son of 
Charles king, provided he would take the Scottish Covenant, 
while the royalists of Ireland promised him their support on 
condition of an independent parliament and a free Roman 
Church. He accepted the latter. 

3. War with Ireland and Scotland. 

The proclamation of King Charles II sent Cromwell into 
Ireland and massacres followed. Fleeing to Scotland, Charles 
took the Covenant. The war was carried into Scotland, but 
Charles was crowned at Scone. Invading England, Charles 
was defeated and fled to France, and then followed the con- 
quest of Scotland and Ireland by Cromwell's general, MonK. 

With these troubles out of the way the Commonwealth now 
gave renewed attention to maritime interests. Portugal was 
punished for assistance rendered to Rupert, the Navigation 
Act, with serious consequences to the Dutch, was passed, and 
the war with the Dutch resulted in the defeat of the latter. 

4. Cromwell, the Lord Protector. 

The enemies of Cromwell charged him with kingly am- 
bitions. The Parliament was charged with neglecting the wel- 



fare of the nation, for which there was much foundation in the 
oppression imposed and the use made of their office for per- 
sonal ends. The army demanded the dissolution of Parlia- 
ment, and in the midst of passing a bill of dissolution Crom- 
well dissolved the Long Parliament and on the same day the 
Council of State was dissolved. This was followed by a new 
Council of State and the Little Parliament, which was of 
short duration. 

In less than a week (Dec. 16, 1653) Cromwell was made 
Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland 
and Ireland, followed by a new government and constitution. 
New troubles arose with the new Parliament and Cromwell 
was offered the title of king, which he refused. 

His method of administration has been both praised and 
condemned, but the fact remains that under his rule "the 
country prospered and Cromwell was respected as but few 
English kings have been." 

Foreign affairs were handled by him with characteristic 
vigor and skill. He destroyed the Spanish fleet and took 
Jamaica, and in the following spring Dunkirk fell into his 
hands. 

While the contemporaries of Cromwell disagree as to his 
character they uniformly declare that he was the greatest 
man of his time. Says Lord Clarendon, "To subdue three 
nations, which perfectly hated him, to an entire obedience to 
all his dictates; to awe and govern those nations by an army 
that was indevoted to him and wished his ruin, was an instance 
of a very prodigious address. But his greatness at home was 



MODERN ERA. 



137 



but a shadow of the glory he had abroad." Says Lingard, the 
Catholic historian of England, "Some writers have main- 
tained that Cromwell dissembled in religion as well as in 
politics . . But this supposition is contradicted by the uni- 
form tenor of his life." 

There was much in Cromwell that reminds us of such gen- 
erals as Julius Caesar and Napoleon, but in the temper and 
spirit of his ambitions he should forever be distinguished from 
the latter. 

II. The Restoration, 1660- 1668. 

Upon the death of Cromwell his son Richard was proclaimed 
protector by the Council. It required but a few months to 
show that he was incapable of dealing with difficulties as did 
his father, and at the expiration of eight months he was asked 
to resign. 

The Rump Parliament was again convened, but taking up 
the old quarrel with the army the latter closed the House and 
assumed the government of affairs. 

1. Accession of Charles II. 

In the meantime Monk, Cromwell's general in Scotland, 
with his troops was planning the restoration of the Stuarts. 
Entering London with seven thousand men he called for a 
free Parliament which convened at Westminster in 1660, and 
in this convention Charles II was proclaimed king of England, 
Scotland and Ireland by both houses. Thus the monarchy 
was restored in the Stuart line. 



The head of the nation was a man utterly devoid of moral 
principle and of profligate character. The army was dis- 
banded, vengeance was taken on the judges of his father, two 
thousand Presbyterian ministers were ejected from their pul- 
pits, John Bunyan, author of "Pilgrim's Progress," was im- 
prisoned for twelve years, and Dunkirk sold to France. Then 
followed, in 1665-66, two great calamities, the Great Plague 
and the Great Fire, in London, but neither these nor anything 
else had any effect upon the profligate life of the king. 

In the war with the Dutch, caused by commercial rivalry, 
the Thames was blockaded by the Dutch fleet, the disgrace of 
which rested heavily upon the nation, and the Dutch dictated 
their own peace terms. From 1667-78 occurred the "Cabal" 
Ministry, the war with Holland, Declaration of Indulgence 
and its recall, the Test Act, Danby's Ministry and the "Papist 
Plot." 

In 1679 was passed the Habeas Corpus Act, which provided 
against the imprisonment of subjects before being brought to 
trial, or the presentation of proof in open court that their 
confinement was legal. 

At this time the party names Whig and Tory came into use. 
The former is a Scotch word meaning sour milk and was ap- 
plied to insurgent Presbyterian ministers ; the latter signified 
the court supporters and originally meant Romanist outlaws, 
or robbers in the bogs of Ireland. 

2. Upon the death of Charles, James II succeeded to the 
throne (1685-1688). 



138 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



Monmouth's rebellion, in his attempt to seize the crown, was 
crushed. James at once instituted arbitrary measures in his 
policy of restoring the old religion and destroying civil liberty. 
Protestant dissenters were treated with cruelty. To advance 
his own scheme he issued a Declaration of Indulgence, and in 
1688 committed seven bishops to the Tower who had signed a 
petition protesting against the order that a second Declaration 
of Indulgence be read in the Churches. 

Two things stand out prominently in this period of the first 
two kings of the Restoration. The first is the strong and de- 
termined attitude of the English people in demanding good 
government and their insistence upon their rights in affairs 
both political and religious. The spirit of the Magna Charta 
was operative in this attitude and it spoke loudly to the people 
from a distance of nearly five hundred years. The other fact 
is "that a profligate monarch cannot corrupt a sober, indus- 
trious and liberty-loving people. Notwithstanding the ex- 
cesses of Charles II the great mass of the people were pros- 
perous during his reign, and noteworthy progress was made in 
manufactures, commerce, science and literature." 

3. The Revolution of 1688 and the Accession of William and 
Mary (1689-1694). 

Mary and Anne, the two daughters of James, were married 
to Protestants, the former to William, Prince of Orange, and 
the latter to George, Prince of Denmark. William landed at 
Torbay with fourteen thousand men and James fled to his 



cousin Louis XIV, never to return. The Parliament placed 
the crown upon William and Mary as joint sovereigns, and 
then a Parliamentary committee drew up the Declaration of 
Rights "which recited the illegal acts of James, his abdication 
and the determination of Lords and Commons to assert Eng- 
land's ancient rights and liberties." 

Having formed the Grand Alliance, William declared war 
against France (1689), but before he could prosecute it the 
rebellion of the Jacobites in Scotland and Ireland required 
his attention. The war in Ireland was brought to a close by 
the Battle of the Boyne, where he met the army of James, re- 
inforced by Louis XIV. The army was routed and James 
again fled to France. While these things were proceeding in 
Ireland, Louis XIV stirred up the Jacobites in England and 
the English met with a naval defeat at Beachy Head, but in 
the Battle of La Hogue the French met with a crushing defeat 
and the conspiracy of the Jacobites was stamped out. 

It was during this period that Parliament embodied the 
Declaration of Rights in the Bill of Rights "which established 
the right of the people through their representatives to depose 
the king, to change the order of succession and to set on the 
throne whomsoever they would. This bill, having received the 
signature of the king, put an end forever to all claim of divine 
right. This act of Parliament, the third and final of the great 
steps which England has taken in the formation of her Con- 
stitution, rounded out and completed the provisions for Eng- 
lish liberty partly set forth in the Magna Charta of 1215 and 
the Petition of Right, of 1628." It is by these great docu- 



MODERN ERA. 



139 



merits, expressions of the demands of the people, that we trace 
the development in English institutions and liberties, and can 
see to what point the people had advanced in their democracy, 
and how within less than a century from the time of the last 
of these great steps England was to meet with an exemplifi- 
cation of her own principles on American soil. 

The greatness of William was universally recognized, not- 
withstanding the unpopularity that existed because he was a 
foreigner. But no English sovereign more sincerely and ener- 
getically sought the best interests of England with so little 
personal consideration involved. 

4. Queen Anne, 1702-1714. 

By the Act of Settlement (1701), one of the leading events 
of William's closing years, Anne, the sister of Mary, succeeded 
to the throne. During her reign the War of the Spanish Suc- 
cession was waged, which has already received our attention. 
Marlborough defeated the French at Blenheim and Mal- 
plaquet and seized the Netherlands. 

In 1707 occurred the union of England and Scotland, a 
complete political union in which the Scottish independent 
parliament was given up, the kingdom to be known as Great 
Britain, and the Union Jack the new national flag. 

Bolingbroke, the foreign secretary, was the most prominent 
figure of the Tory ministry. He was a party to the Treaty of 
Utrecht. "This treaty, by which England dishonorably de- 
serted Austria, was not the act of the nation but of a perfidious 



minister who was the secret foe of the Protestant succession 
and favored the return of the Jacobites." 

Thus from the time of the establishment of the Restoration 
we have briefly traced the events distinguishing the new de- 
velopments which mark the important advances made by this 
great nation. During this period of a little over half a cen- 
tury the tendency has been upward throughout in the estab- 
ishment of those principles which have placed Great Britain 
in the forefront of European States and the passing on of her 
great institutions to her colonies. 

5. The development in culture. 

We cannot do much more than give the names that repre- 
sent this development. During the reign of Charles II ap- 
peared Bunyan's great work which has exercised such a pro- 
found religious influence upon the world, and in science the 
demonstrations of Sir Isaac Newton producing a revolution in 
scientific thought and investigation. 

Between the Elizabethan Age and the Age of Anne as the 
connecting link was Milton, who is sometimes placed in the 
latter age. Pope was the representative poet of eighteenth 
century literature, but that which distinguished the period were 
prose writings. In philosophy Berkeley brought forth his 
Idealistic system and Locke his Empiricism. Literature was 
enriched by Dean Swift the satirist, Steel the journalist and 
Addison the critic "whose essays in the Spectator were the 
finest literary product of the age." 



140 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



Questions and Topics for Study. 

The following works will be found helpful to the student: 
Green's Short History of the English People is still the best 
general reference. Old South Leaflets Nos. 27, 28, 62, 63. 
Kendall's Source Book of English History is especially valu- 
able. Oliver Cromwell's Life and Letters by Carlyle. History 
of All Nations. 

1. What was the relation of the Council of State to Parlia- 
ment? 

2. What was the attitude of the Presbyterians to the Com- 
monwealth and the Protector? 

3. Why did Charles II ally himself at the first with Ireland 
rather than Scotland? 

4. Who was Montrose and what was his design? 

5. Were the massacres in Ireland justified? 

6. What brought about the war with the Dutch? Note the 
successes of Blake. 

7. Why did Cromwell dissolve the Parliament? Had he a 
right to do so, or was the act an arbitrary one? 

8. Why did Cromwell refuse the title of king? 

9. New Sects of the Commonwealth period. Gooch's 
Democratic Ideas in the Seventeenth Century. 

10. The character and work of Cromwell. Morley's Crom- 
well. 

11. In what respects does Cromwell compare with Napoleon? 

12. By what act did the new administration open under 
Charles II? 

13. Who were the Nonconformists and why persecuted? 



14. How does the commercial interest of the Dutch at 
this time compare with- that of other states? 

15. What was the "Cabal" and how was the title formed? 

16. What were the terms of the Treaty of Dover? 

17. What positions distinguished Whigs and Tories? 

18. The Tory opposition. Swift's Journal to Stella. 

19. What American territory came to England during this 
period? 

20. What was the "Bloody Assizes" in the reign of James, 
and what forms did his tyranny assume? 

21. Who were the Jacobites and what was the ground of 
their revolution? 

22. When was the Bank of England established? 

23. Between what states was the Peace of Ryswick con- 
cluded, and to what terms did Louis XIV accede? 

24. Pope's poem, The Essay on Man, illustrating the idea 
of his time that "the proper study of mankind is man." 

25. Public and domestic life at the close of the seventeenth 
century. Thackeray's Henry Esmond. 

26. With how many English rulers was Louis XIV contem- 
porary? 

///. House of Hanover. 

This period of English history was one of general prosper- 
ity and an increasing development in good government. Spec- 
ial importance attaches to the period because of the attitude 
of the British people to those things that related to the inde- 
pendence of her American colonies, and because of the loss 



MODERN ERA. 



141 



of this territory itself. It was a moment of unusual signifi- 
cance to Britain, America and the world at large that such in- 
dependence was gained. It meant that not only did a new 
nation take its place among the states of the world, but under 
peculiar conditions giving the idea of liberty a larger meaning 
that should receive constant emphasis in the new state and 
carried to the world at large, and also, and particularly, the es- 
tablishment of a form of government that should develop into 
the greatest political success in that form of government in 
history. In other words this separation from the mother 
country was the most significant fact in English history of 
this period which was destined to exercise a peculiar influence 
upon British thought and policies for all time. 

1. George I, 1714-1727. 

In coming to his throne he represented the two esentials of 
the English people, i. e., Protestantism and civil liberty. The 
following questions will bring forward the chief points of his 
reign : 

(1.) In what way did the Act of Settlement of the reign of 
William determine this new line of sovereigns and what did it 
secure from a religious point of view? 

(2.) What attempts were made by the Pretender, James 
Edward ? 

(3.) What alliance was made with Holland in 1716 and 
why? 

(4.) What was the attitude of many of the ministers, in- 



cluding Walpole, to George's involving England in the Ger- 
man wars ? Note that it was a period of great complications 
in European affairs. 

(5.) What was the South Sea Bubble, what did the com- 
pany assume and what did its failure involve? To what ex- 
tent did Walpole save the situation? 

(6.) To whom did the king commit the affairs of govern- 
ment, and who established the prime-ministership? 

(7.) What were the closing incidents of this reign, and how 
would you estimate the abilities of this monarch? 

2. George II, 1727-1760. 

He had the advantage over his father in that he could speak 
English fluently, but in his evil ways his father still lived. He 
had the support of the clever Queen Carolina, which added 
to the popularity of his reign. She took an active part in the 
affairs of state, and unconsciously to the king directed his 
ideas and policies. 

(1.) On what point especially did the king and Walpole 
disagree? 

(2.) What brought about the war with Spain and how did 
it result in the fall of Walpole? 

(3.) What part did George II take in the War of Austrian 
Succession, and what was the particular gain to England? 

(4.) By what battle was the rebellion in Scotland crushed? 

(5.) What were the peculiar characteristics of Pitt, and 
by what qualities did he gain the admiration of the people? 



142 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



(6.) What part did Washington take in the border war- 
fare in America with the French, and what war at that time 
broke out in Europe with George II supporting Frederick the 
Great ? 

(7.) Who was practically the absolute ruler of Britain dur- 
ing this time of war and unrest? When did Canada become 
a British possession? 

(8.) What two rival companies were established in India, 
and what outrages did Clive avenge during the Seven Years' 
War? What did it decide for England in regard to India? 

3. George III, 1760-1788. 

This sovereign was but twenty-two years of age when he 
succeeded his grandfather to the throne, and while of an 
upright and conscientious disposition was obstinate and self- 
willed and governed by prejudices. The war with France was 
still in progress. Much that happened during this period in 
connection with the American colonies will be considered in 
fuller detail in our American studies. 

(1.) What precipitated the resignation of Pitt? 

(2.) What was the Stamp Act and when was it passed? In 
what way did it arouse the alarm and opposition of the colon- 
ists? What was Pitt's recommendation and what was the re- 
sult? What great orator supported Pitt? 

(3.) Who was nominally at the head of the ministry when 
the tea tax was levied, and what act precipitated in Parliament 
the Five Acts which not only endangered the liberties of the 



colonists but directly violated the principles of the English 
Constitution ? 

(4.) When did the Revolution break out, and when was 
the Declaration of Independence drawn up? 

(5.) What effect did the French Alliance have upon Eng- 
land, and how in his last speech did Lord Chatham counsel the 
House of Lords? 

(6.) In what other conflicts was England engaged at this 
time? 

(7.) When was the treaty signed in which England sur- 
rendered her claims in America? 

Civilization During This Period. 

(1.) The religious awakening. The moral and religious 
life of England was in the decline when John and Charles 
Wesley were instrumental in creating a religious revival that 
not only swept over England but crossed the sea to America. 
It planted schools, checked intemperance, quickened the na- 
tional Church and gave an impetus to art and industry. 

(2.) Literature and art. "For the last fifty years enthu- 
siasm or naturalness in literature had been considered in bad 
taste. But gradually, through the great actor Garrick's re- 
vival of Shakespeare's plays from 1741 to 1776, the dull im- 
aginations of the age were stirred," and thus the second half 
of the century paved the way for the great literary awakening 
of the following century. Gray and Goldsmith developed the 
tendency to romanticism in their two great works. David 



MODERN ERA. 



143 



Hume produced an epoch-making work in philosophy, Gib- 
bon wrote the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, while 
Adam Smith was the author of the great economic treatise, 
Wealth of Nations. 

In art Hogarth, Reynolds and Gainsborough depicted life 
both in street scenes and beautiful portraits. 

(3.) In scientific discovery and mechanical inventions the 
industrial development was brought about by Hargreaves, 
Compton, Arkwright and Watt, the latter's steam engine being 
the most remarkable invention of the age. 

Northern Europe. 

International politics of Europe were based on the balance 
of power between states, which became a still more serious 
question when in this period two new powers appeared upon 
the stage of political action. These were Russia and Prussia. 
The rise of these states, taking their places among the great 
powers, at once became a new and important factor in the 
political situation of Europe relative to the fundamental ques- 
tion of the balance of power. This will readily appear when 
we note how "Prussia became the rival of Austria for supre- 
macy in the Holy Roman Empire ; Russia pushed the Turks to 
the Black Sea; Sweden was relegated to her peninsular pos- 
sessions across the Baltic, and France, which at the close of 
the Thirty Years' War was the strongest military power of 
Europe and was preparing for expansion eastward, was effec- 
tually barred therefrom. Even in England this idea of the 



balance of power became a living force, and the English 
formed alliances with the northern states in order to prevent 
either France or Austria from becoming too rich and powerful. 
This system, founded on diplomacy and the dynastic interests 
of the chief sovereigns of Europe, was pursued at any cost." 

/. The Rise of Prussia. 

One effect of the Thirty Years' War was the disintegration 
of Germany, broken up into little hostile states. With the 
tremendous strength of France, the most powerful state of 
Europe, and the growing power of Russia, Europe was sadly 
in need of a northern power to prevent the ravages these 
states might make. It was a serious moment for European 
interests, and Frederick William the Great arose to meet this 
need, to offset these possibilities, by the rise of Brandenburg. 
He organized his army and strengthened the government and 
by his shrewd policies made Brandenburg the most powerful 
German state of the north, and for many years controlled the 
relations of the powers. 

So well were the policies of this sovereign conducted that 
in time of war and peace and especially during the French- 
Swedish War, 1700, Frederick assumed at Konigsburg the 
royal crown as Frederick I of Prussia. Thus was founded the 
Kingdom of Prussia and its sovereign "attained the level of 
other independent sovereigns, and from this time Branden- 
burg-Prussia had to be reckoned with among the great Euro- 
pean powers." From this national development we can see 



144 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



how the rise of a state determines the moves on the political 
checker-board, and how essentially these factors enter into the 
history of human events. 

//. Russia. 

In the days before she was overrun by Mongul hordes in 
the thirteenth century, Russia had sustained a good govern- 
ment and developed considerable culture, but her subjection 
for two centuries to Tartar domination was attended with 
ruinous results. Under Ivan the Great (1462-1505) and Ivan 
the Terrible ( 1533-1584) this Tartar domination was weak- 
ened. Then came the period of anarchy and the disorganiza- 
tion of government until Peter the Great (1682-1725), the 
principal founder of Russian civilization, "whose high aims 
and noble ambitions were strangely mingled with the lowest 
moral ideals, who was to revolutionize the institutions of 
Russia and start her upon the path of modern progress." 
With his advanced ideas he began the reconstruction of Rus- 
sian society, and to this end visited other countries to discover 
their methods and take from them such persons as would be 
capable of improving Russian industrial conditions. 

He was defeated at Narva in the War of the North, but 
annihilated the army of Charles XII at Pultowa, while Sweden 
was driven from the eastern shores of the Baltic. So that 
while Sweden fell from her high position among the northern 
nations, "Russia emerged from comparative obscurity to the 
position of a great state." Thus we see the rise of Prussia 



and Russia during this period and the sense in which their ap- 
pearance was calculated to complicate the politics of Europe 
in maintaining the balance of power. 

Questions. 
The student is referred to the following helpful works : 
Hassall's Balance of Pozver, pp. 1-24, 107-279, 298-331, 351- 
393. Frederick the Great, by Carlyle. Life of Peter the 
Great, by Waliszewski. Louisa Miihlbach's Old Fritz and the 
New Era dealing with Frederick the Great. With Fire and 
Sword, by Sienkiewiez. Tolstoi's Ivan the Terrible. History 
of All Nations. 

1. What position did the Great Elector take in the war be- 
tween Sweden and Poland, in 1655? 

2. What was his action regarding the Prussian diet of 1663, 
and in what manner did he employ Huguenot exiles to his 
advantage ? 

3. What was the issue of the French-Swedish war in the in- 
crease of the Elector's power? 

4. What were the leading qualities of Frederick tire Great, 
and what effect did they have upon Prussian interests ? 

5. How did Frederick precipitate the War of Austrian 
Succession, and with whom did he join in the struggle? 

6. In what condition did Prussia emerge from the Seven 
Years' War, and in what degree did it enhance her prestige 
among European states? 

7. What economic reforms did Frederick institute and in 
what condition did his death leave Prussia? 



MODERN ERA. 



145 



8. What special advantage accrued to Russia in the capture 
of Azov in the reign of Peter the Great? 

9. What were some of Peter's reforms, educational and 
religious, and when did he transfer the government to St. 
Petersburg ? 

10. What was Peter's object regarding Sweden in the War 
of the North and what alliance did he form? 

11. What were the moral and intellectual qualities of 
Catherine the Great, of Russia, and how did she employ the 
latter? 

12. What was Catherine's ambition in the conquest of 
Crimea ? 

13. How did the geographical position of Poland enter into 
the matter of her partition, and what reason did she advance 
to Prussia and Austria for that partition? How much fell 
to Russia? 

Austria and the Netherlands. 

Our studies, in dealing with the other states, have indicated 
the importance of the Low Countries in matters of commerce 
and as the battlefield of Europe. The relations have been 
brought forward quite definitely, and it is only necessary that 
the leading events be distinguished as suggested by the follow- 
ing questions : 

I. Austria. 

The following works will be found helpful : Austria, by 



J. S. C. Abbot. The internal reforms of Maria Theresa and 
Joseph II are splendidly set forth by Sidney Whitman's Aus- 
tria (story of the nations). History of All Nations, Vols. XII, 
XIII, XIV, XV. 

1. In what condition did the Thirty Years' War leave the 
Empire ? 

2. What were the claims of Leopold that brought on the 
War of Spanish Succession? 

3. What precipitated the War of the Austrian Succession 
at the death of Charles VI? 

4. What were the qualities of Maria Theresa and what 
characterized her regency ? What were some of her reforms ? 

5. Endowed with excellent qualities what caused most of 
the plans of Joseph II to fail in his ambition to unify the 
provinces? What two things did he succeed in doing? 

77. The Netherlands. 

The Dutch history from 1672 to 1675 is brought out in 
Dumas' love romance, The Black Tulip. Tales of Flemish 
Life, by Hendrik Conscience give a lively representation of 
life in the Netherlands during this century. History of All 
Nations, Vols. XII, XIII, XIV. 

In what art were the United Provinces recognized through- 
out Europe as masters? 

2. What was their distinction as a maritime power? 

3. When did the Republican party come to supremacy? 

4. What power did DeWitt, the grand pensionary, control, 
and what led him into war with England? 



146 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



5. Under what conditions was the republican party over- 
thrown, and what House was restored ? 

6. What brought the Prince of Orange into such remark- 
able popularity and when did he succeed to the English throne? 

7. What part did the Provinces take in the War of Aus- 
trian Succession? 

8. In what respect did the geographical position of the 
Spanish Netherlands place them in an unfortunate way during 
the French wars? 

9. When did they become an Austrian possession and was 
their condition improved? 

10. What led them into revolt and what internal conditions 
favored their falling again into the hands of Austria? 



11. In what respects were the Spanish Netherlands wronged 
by the United Provinces? 

The Chart. 

During this great and stirring period Europe has passed 
through many remarkable scenes. Established orders have 
been broken down and many radical changes have taken place. 
It will be well for the student to carefully review this whole 
procedure by the chart. It will in a brief time refresh the 
memory regarding the leading facts. By the means of the 
chart get a general view of the whole period, reconstructing it 
in the relations of the various states. In doing so it will be- 
come something of a historical picture, leaving a definite im- 
pression of the fundamental conditions of this period. 



if ram the {French {Revolution to the {Fall of {Napoleon 



French {Revolution 



I. She {National (Assembly. 

She States-General. Constitution of 1791. 
2. She {Monarchy. 

jQouis XVI dethroned by the Girondists. 
S.tReign of Serror. 

Gommitiee of Public Safety. War in Slaty. 

{Robespierre and the work of the gull- . 
loiine. Sxecution of {Robespierre. *o}£22*? 



{France '3/ 1799-1815 

1. 'Under the Consulate. (Constitution of^ 

1799. Second coalition. 

{Napoleon made Smperor, 1804. 
2. She {New Smpire. 

So the Peace ofSilsil,l&07. 

{Napoleon's conflict with the nations. 
8. &all of {Napoleon. Rattle of WaterloolBlsX 

jGouis XVltt restored. {Reconstruction. \ /6 

{Russia and Prussia 



4,She Gonvention. 

Shermidorians. Givil war and famine. 

Political system. Ctppearance of {Napoleon. 
&.She ^Directory. {Napoleon's victories in 

Sialy. Snglish victories of 1796-97. 

{Pall of the {Republic, 17 '97. 

Gonquest of&gvpt. She war in Palestine* 
-j Stall of the {Directory. 

Sngland 



I. So the final partition ofPoland 

under Gatherine the Great 
2. She {Napoleonic conflict. 
&.&xpansion of the Smpire.Sioly Ctlliance. 
Prussia Mosses under {Frederick Wil- 
liam II and {Frederick William 111,1786-1840; 
{Reforms of Stein and §fardenbevg. 
War of jQiberation, 1806. 
Peace of '1815, increase ofterritory j 

Ghart 10 



1. (Alliance with (Austria, Spain, Siolland 
and Prussia against {France. 
2. She work of Pitt. Union of SrelandlSOl 
8. Peace ofCtmiens, 1802, war renewed. 
4. War with (America 1812. Sreaty of Ghent 
B.Sfapoleon crushed by Wellington, 1815. 
Snlernal reform, commerce,extension. 
.literature of this era. Sums, Words- 
worth, Shelley, Syron, Seott,$ ! aneC?usten. 
(Austria 



l.Ctltiance of Joseph II and Gatherine 
the Great in the war with Surkey. 
2.So the Sreaty of {Reichenbach, 1790. 
3. She {Napoleonic conflict. {Francis de- 
feated at Ctusierliiz. Sreaty ofPresburg. 
"^-^(tustria and Germany reorganized. 
Waterloo ^N. 4. Sn the {Reconstruction Lombard 
construction \ ^enetia, Syrol, fell to (Austria. 



FROM THE FRENCH REVOLUTION TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON 



In our last study we saw how Richelieu had established ab- 
solutism in France, how it was abused by the three following 
rulers, and how it failed. France is now on the brink of a 
mighty upheaval. It is one of those moments that indicates 
so much as to the existing conditions in a State, and that issues 
in so much in the things that follow. Our present study com- 
prises two periods : it begins with a Revolution and ends with 
a Reconstruction. 

The French Revolution. 

/. Fundamental Causes. 

It is of the first importance that we understand the true 
causes of such a revolution. We should see - how these furnish 
an intelligent explanation of such an event. They should set 
forth the circumstances of one period as operative in the next. 
Clearly perceived they point to the inevitable in the violation 
of fundamental law. Great moral principles come to shore and 
are accentuated in great national crises, and there is perhaps 
no period in history when such was the case more than in the 
period of the French Revolution. For a long time moral prin- 
ciple had been outraged by a system of things that became in- 
sufferable and the consequence was a revolution. But this 



crisis also indicates a progress in social and political ideas 
which find expression in this breaking up of the old order. 
Let us note specifically what these fundamental causes were. 

i. Arbitrary and corrupt administration of government. 
Executive ministers and the legislative assembly were under 
the control of the king. By "beds of justice" — a system of 
legislation against the will of parliament — the king became a 
despot. High offices were sold to the highest bidders. What- 
ever measures were proposed the action of the king was final. 
Absolutism became despotism. 

2. Loss of respect for the throne. "The debauchery of 
Louis XV and his feeble foreign policy tended to dissipate 
what reverence for royalty was left." 

3. Inequality and favoritism. Those who were able to pay 
well for it were raised to distinction by the king. But "in 
1789 France demanded equality and fraternity. These two 
synonyms meant the complete overthrow of the old system ; 
for that system was built from its very base upon privilege, 
inequality, class selfishness, disorder." When we remember 
that nearly two-thirds of all the land was held by the nobles 
and the clergy, which brought pleasure and ease to the rich 
and only burdens to the poor, we can understand the grow- 
ing attitude of the peasants under constantly enlightening con- 
ditions. 



149 



ISO 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



4. Taxation and legislation. Various heavy taxes were 
levied the burden of which fell upon the common people. For 
the collection of these unjust assessments special courts were 
created. "No less than two hundred and eighty-five law codes 
existed in the kingdom and no peasant or itinerant tradesman 
could know sufficient law to be safe outside his home district. 
The legal class almost outnumbered the nobility and drew 
especially rich plunder from disputes over intricate land laws. 
Thus 'justice' as well as office went to the highest bidder." 

5. Intellectual awakening. In this we find the real, the es- 
sential cause of the French Revolution. Aside from this the 
other conditions would never have produced such an eruption. 
Only as the people come to more advanced ideas do they come 
to a full realization of their needs, the limitations under which 
they suffer and the possibilities of a higher and better order 
of things. 

This was the case with the French people. A great change 
in thought had developed. The English system of govern- 
ment had been investigated by Voltaire and he devoted his 
brilliant literary abilities to the exposure and criticism of the 
French regime. Rousseau, in his Social Contract declared that 
"all power comes from the people and that they alone should 
determine the manner of their government." To this same 
end the works of Diderot and Montesquieu contributed. 

By these works the people came to an intelligent apprehen- 
sion of existing conditions, and the great need of a new order. 
It was this awakening that constituted the fundamental cause 
of the Revolution. "The current of thought was in a revolu- 



tionary direction. Traditional beliefs in religion were boldly 
questioned. Political speculation was rife. Montesquieu had 
drawn attention to the liberty secured by the English consti- 
tution. Voltaire had dwelt on human rights — the rights of 
the individual. Rousseau had expatiated on the sovereign 
right of the majority. Add to these agencies the influence of 
the American Revolution and of the American Declaration of 
Independence, with its proclamation of human rights, and of 
the foundation of government in contract and the consent of 
the people." 

Thus we see how both English institutions, and the exempli- 
fication of their principles in the American Revolution at that 
very time were greatly effective in leading the French mind to 
higher ideals and arousing it to a betterment of its condition. 

II. Periods of the Revolution. 

The Chart distinguishes five periods beginning with the Na- 
tional Assembly and ending with the fall of the Directory. 
The following questions and topics for study arranged under 
these five divisions will guide the student in the study of the 
details. The principal facts of the preceding study relative to 
France together with the present survey of the causes of the 
Revolution should enable us to appreciate the significance of 
this period. 

Questions and Topics for Study. 

The student will find the following works helpful : The 
Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, chs. i-vii, by Rose. Ste- 



MODERN ERA. 



I5i 



phen's Revolutionary Europe, chs. ii-vii. History of All Na- 
tions, Vol. XVI, 19-253. 

1. The National Assembly. 

The States-General consisted of 1200 members, the election 
of which took place during the winter of 1788-89. One hun- 
dred and seventy-five years had passed since the last sessions 
of that body. Five things were emphasized by the reports of 
the representatives of the three estates : First, the general state 
of suffering; second, equal taxation; third, personal liberty ; 
fourth, freedom of the press; fifth, finances to be under the 
control of the States-General. 

(1) What oath was taken by the commoners in what was 
known as the "tennis court oath" ? 

(2) What significance attached to the fall of the Bastille 
at the beginning of the Revolution, and what state of things 
immediately followed? 

(3) In what manner did the American Declaration of In- 
dependence influence the deliberations of the National As- 
sembly ? 

(4) Formation of the new constitution, and the political 
union of the French provinces. What attempts were made by 
Mirabeau in the direction of a constitutional monarchy, and 
by what were they rendered abortive ? 

(5) Macaulay's Essay on Mirabeau. 

(6) State some of the leading provisions of the new consti- 
tution. 



(7) Deprived of the support of Mirabeau by his death, why 
did the king flee from Paris ? Was it a discreet or a cowardly 
action ? 

2. The Constitutional Monarchy. 

With such hostile factions as the Girondists and the Jacobins 
fighting for governmental control the monarchy could make no 
progress, while the existing conditions in matters of poverty, 
religious civil warfare and insecurity of life and property 
reached a desperate stage. 

(1) What was the influence of Lafayette under the new 
order? 

(2) Why did the Girondists demand a foreign war, and 
when and against whom was it formerly declared? How did 
the first campaign issue? 

(3) What were the grounds of the dethronement and exe- 
cution of Louis XVI? 

(4) In the first coalition against France that immediately 
followed, what European States were involved? 

(5) Note the organization and rise to supremacy of the 
Committee of Public Safety. Of what Committee did Robes- 
pierre become the leader, and what was the course of the 
"Black Terror" under its policies? What persons of distinc- 
tion fell under the guillotine at this time? 

(6) Under what conditions did the Convention rise against 
Robespierre and send him to the guillotine? 



152 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



3. The Convention. 

Following this period of wholesale destruction the Com- 
mittee was subordinated to the Convention. 

( 1 ) What conditions followed the reign of terror known as 
the "White Terror"? 

(2) Note the success attending the French arms in breaking 
the First Coalition. 

(3) What new political system was undertaken in 1795, and 
what were the special provisions of the new constitution? 

(4) Placed in charge of the defense of the Convention 
Napoleon Bonaparte was raised to prominence. Capital pun- 
ishment was abolished and amnesty granted to persons under 
political accusations. 

4. The Directory. 

When the Directory was established France was in a state 
of bankruptcy, and England regarded the new order as tem- 
porary and unstable and refused to follow other nations that 
were making overtures for peace. 

(1) Trace the progress of the war in the campaigns of 1796 
and 1797. What reverses did the French suffer, and what were 
Napoleon's successes in Italy? What other gains rewarded 
French arms ? 

(2) Who were the Clichians, and what was their political 
position ? 

(3) England alone opposed France in the campaigns of the 
next two years, her fleet being supreme on the sea. What did 



Napoleon gain by the Battle of the Pyramids, and what did 
Nelson gain by the Battle of the Nile? 

(4) What were the conditions that pointed out his personal 
opportunity and led him to desert his army and return to 
France? 

(5) What was the general state of things under the Direc- 
tory that led the people to greet Napoleon as a deliverer when 
he reached Paris, and how were these conditions favorable to 
his personal ambitions? 



The Napoleonic Era. 

We enter upon a period of far-reaching significance in the 
history of Europe. The dawn of the nineteenth century wit- 
nesses the marvelous spectacle of a great central figure de- 
termining the moves of nations upon the political chessboard 
of Europe. Over these States he waves his sword and stirs 
them to mighty action. The issue of the forces of the nine- 
teenth century called into such activity will be a new era in 
the history of Europe and of the world. The tremendous 
figure of Napoleon rose on the wave of democratic militarism 
"only to neglect national sympathies and to be cast down." It 
is one of those remarkable spectacles in the history of great 
men and stirring deeds. It is only as we stand at Waterloo 
and at the point of the Reconstruction that we can adequately 
appreciate such elements as the significance of England's naval 
supremacy, The Peace of Tilsit, the Continental System, the 



MODERN ERA. 



153 



Peninsular War, the Russian disaster, the War of Liberation, 
and other events. 

Critical moments in the history and development of 
humanity, when the energies of great nations are strained to 
the breaking point, are moments when new epochs are formed, 
new civilizations born. The struggles and conflicts of such 
an hour are the birth-throes of our mother-life and we 
anxiously await the issue. The Napoleonic Era was such a 
moment that struggled to its Waterloo when Britain stood in 
the breach, brought the conflict to a close and opened the 
door to a new age. 

/. France. 

We have already seen how the various nations were swung 
into the vortex of this struggle with France in the First Coali- 
tion. Napoleon was then under the Directory, but now France 
is under Napoleon. The fall of the Directory was followed 
by the Consulate, and the Consulate by the New Empire to the 
fall of Napoleon and the Reconstruction. We now trace the 
events within these brief perrods. 

I. The Consulate. 

Under Napoleon's supervision the Constitution of the Year 
VIII was formulated by Sieyes and was adopted by a popular 
vote in December, 1799. The Directory had failed, and the 
new system under Napoleon was the only thing to accept as 
assuming any degree of stability. He restored religion which 



suffered so greatly during the Revolution, and allegiance to the 
pope was allowed on condition of obedience to the constitution. 

(1) State the leading features of Napoleon's internal ad- 
ministration. 

(2) What brilliant men were included in Napoleon's min- 
istry? 

(3) What powers formed the Second Coalition against 
France, and what importance attached to the Peace of Lune- 
ville? 

(4) Why was the war with England renewed after the 
Peace of Amiens, and why did Napoleon sell Louisiana to 
the United States? 

(5) When was Napoleon crowned Emperor and what sig- 
nificance attached to the coronation as to the subordination 
of the ecclesiastical to temporal power? 

(6) To what extent did the French enjoy self-government 
under the Consulate? 

2. The Empire. 

"The form of government in France was little changed un- 
der the Empire, but the assemblies became absolutely sub- 
servient and the Council of State, in which the emperor per- 
sonally superintended his ministry, grew to be the real ruling 
body. Through this almost military bureaucracy, Napoleon 
governed with an attention to detail equal to that of Louis 
XIV, and with such fierce energy and increasing ability that 
one of his ministers wrote, 'The gigantic enters into our very 



154 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY, 



habits of thought' .... Meantime, freedom of petition, 
freedom of the press, personal liberty and representative gov- 
ernment absolutely ceased to exist in France, and the general, 
so brilliant in battle, stooped to rule by a vast army of secret 
spies." 

( i ) The Third Coalition. 

The war with England beginning in 1803 continued until 
the close of the era involving the other states. 

What was the importance of the Battle of Trafalgar both as 
to naval supremacy and the defeat of the French? 

By what maneuvers did Napoleon crush the coalition? 

(2) Napoleon's scheme of Empire. 

We must keep in mind Napoleon's dominant design, i. e., 
"to spread throughout Europe the basic principles of the 
French Revolution." 

What did he accomplish by the Treaty of Presburg regard- 
ing Austria, and how did he dispose of Germany and Italian 
states among his relatives? This was the beginning of the 
Confederation of the Rhine. What benefits accrued to 
Napoleon and Germany by this Confederation? 

(3) In what great battles were Prussia and Russia defeated ? 

(4) The Peace of Tilsit. 

This took place on a raft in the Niemen River between Alex- 
ander I and Napoleon and marks the height of Napoleon's 
power, "the time when he was an unquestioned king of kings." 



What were the designs of these two monarchs regarding the 
division between them of Europe? Had Napoleon any inten- 
tion of keeping faith with Alexander in these designs? 

(5) The Continental System. 

What was this system, and what effect did it have upon 
England and America? 

(6) What were the successes of Wellington in the Penin- 
sular War, and what did it contribute to the final result? By 
this time Napoleon's empire had fallen. 

(7) Under what conditions did Napoleon secure an alliance 
with Austria and Russia and how did it involve his wife 
Josephine? 

(8) The Empress Josephine, by Louisa Muhlbach. 

(9) What was the greatest extent of Napoleon's Empire in 
1810? 

(10) State the circumstances regarding the Continental 
System of the Russian campaign. How did it end for 
Napoleon ? 

(11) The Retreat from Moscow, by Count Segur. 

(12) Trace the movements in the War of Liberation and 
the results. 

(13) The Battle of Waterloo. 

The most famous account in Victor Hugo's Les Miserables. 
In what way would the defeat of Wellington have affected 
the final result? 

(14) What were the basic conditions that led to Napoleon's 
fall ? See Emerson's essay on Napoleon, and Napoleon and 
His Marshals, by Headley. 



MODERN ERA. 



155 



(15) The Reconstruction. Treaties of 1815. 

"The principles on which the settlement was founded were 
rewards to powers which had served against Napoleon; pun- 
ishment for his allies; restraint upon all dangerous or pre- 
ponderating powers, and especially upon France ; repression 
of national, democratic and liberal sentiments and a perfect 
balance of the powers, with causes of rivalry introduced to 
prevent threatened alliances. Popular government and 
equality, branded by association in France with military des- 
potism, were outlawed; and people who sympathized with the 
French Revolution were forced to acknowledge the royal right 
and prerogative, divine, or at least inalienable." 

Give a general statement of the results of the Vienna Con- 
gress in the Reconstruction. 

//. England. 

In the preceding study — From the Peace of Westphalia to 
the French Revolution — the history of England was traced to 
George III and American Independence (See Chart 9). Ten 
years had pased since the war with the American colonies had 
ended, and America had just framed and ratified by the va- 
rious States her Constitution when the French Revolution 
broke out. To regain her strength, following her struggle 
with America England was compelled to follow a course of 
economy and reform. The situation in France placed the Eng- 
lish ministry in a dubious position as to possible relations with 
France. "Pitt temporarily believed that France would not in- 



terfere in England's affairs, but would rather accept the king 
under a written constitution. The turn taken by affairs in 
1792 altered his opinion, and he recommended placing Eng- 
land's forces upon a war basis. Fox believed this to be an 
unnecessary extravagance and expressed his admiration for 
the Revolution. The Tories favored Pitt and the Whigs, Fox ; 
while Burke, who had championed the American Revolution, 
set himself strongly against the rising in France in his Reflec- 
tions on the French Revolution and found himself isolated in 
Parliament." When Louis XVI was executed the following 
year (1793) England was so horrified that Pitt dismissed the 
French ambassador. This act precipitated war with England 
that was continued for more than twenty years. 

Having outlined quite thoroughly France's conflict with the 
nations to the fall of Napoleon we may now leave these events 
and note the other affairs of England during this period. 

1. Affairs in Ireland. 

(1) What was the cause of the disturbances in Ireland that 
were put down by the English army in 1798? 

(2) In January, 1801, the British realm was entitled the 
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. What policy 
on the part of Pitt relative to Catholic political priviliges 
brought about this union ? 

2. War with America. 

(1) What was the cause of the war? 

(2) Considering the tremendous issues at stake in the 



156 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



Napoleonic wars at this time and the important position of 
Great Britain in that critical moment in Europe, note how the 
war of 1812 would be calculated to hinder England's move- 
ment in that crisis. It is often overlooked that a war with 
England at that time would have been a much more serious 
matter for America had the naval power of Britain not been 
engaged against France. 

(3) In the Treaty of Ghent why was nothing said as to 
America's alleged causes of war? 

3. England in 1815. 

The contest with France was a revelation of her strength 
and national union. 

She emerged from the great conflict the most prosperous 
of any Continental power. "Her industrial competitors had 
been ruined. She had blotted out the merchant fleets of her 
Dutch, French and Spanish rivals and now enjoyed not only 
the naval supremacy of the world, but also its carrying trade." 

The great activity of the period was calculated to inspire a 
new movement in literature. Six great names belong to this 
period: Robert Burns who exalted "the beauty of the world 
and the worth of the individual man;" William Woodsworth, 
"inspired by Burns and the first events of the French Revolu- 
tion, strove to embody the deepest emotions in every-day 
words ;" Shelley and Byron, who set aside rigid conventions in 
the revolutionary spirit of their writings ; Sir Walter Scott, in 
his stirring poems and novels of action ; Jane Austen, "proved 



herself a true disciple of Burns and revealed the literary pos- 
sibilities of simple village life." 

III. Russia. 

The study of this period in which these various States were 
so actively involved shows a marked advance in democratic 
ideas and political freedom. "Democratic ideals, patriotism 
and fear of Napoleon swayed many nations. The alliances 
formed were more for protection against tyranny or for the 
advancement of liberty, than for the purpose of aiding rulers 
in gaining more power. In these coalitions we see the begin- 
ning of those alliances between nations which in one form or 
another have continued to the present time." The world had 
advanced too far in freedom and democracy for any despot to 
bring any appreciable portion of it under his control for any 
length of time, no matter what was his personal power or 
genius. 

For Russia's part in the Napoleonic conflict the student is 
referred to the outline already given under France. 

1. War with Turkey. 

What was the object of Catherine the Great and Joseph II 
of Austria in this war just prior to the French Revolution? In 
the interests of the balance of power, how did other nations 
interfere? 

2. What part did Catherine II take in the second partition 



MODERN ERA. 



157 



of Poland? In the final partition in 1795, what did Russia 
gain? 

3. In what way was the war with Sweden, 1788-1790, favor- 
able to Russia? 

4. Note the reforms under Paul I and Alexander I, and the 
influence of the doctrines of Rousseau upon the latter. 

5. In 1815 Alexander, influenced by the principles of Chris- 
tianity, suggested a Holy Alliance for the displacing of force 
in international relations. What power opposed this propo- 
sition ? 

IV. Prussia. 

Frederick William II ascended the throne of Prussia as 
France was ripening for the Revolution. To save his position 
from the danger in which it was placed by the doctrines of the 
Revolution he attempted to crush France. The result was 
the loss of his possessions along the Rhine. 

In the year of the fall of the French Republic (1797) Fred- 
erick William III succeeded to the throne and passed through 
the Napoleonic conflict. The insults of Napoleon awakened 
the nation that seemed to have reached its end. We have 
already seen in what respects Prussia figured in this era of 
conflict with Napoleon and the services of Blucher at Water- 
loo. "The Congress of Vienna was one of the most important 
political events of the first half of the nineteenth century, be- 
cause it made such a disposition of territory as to render the 
continuation of the old-time boundaries impossible, and opened 



the way for those movements which resulted in the forma- 
tion of the present German Empire.'' 

1. Reforms of Stein and Hardenberg. 

In what way did Stein better the conditions of the serfs, alter 
the policy of non-taxation of the nobles and improve city gov- 
ernment? 

How did Hardenberg improve commercial and industrial 
conditions, and what steps did he take to make the army a na- 
tional institution? 

2. In what war did Prussia regain her place among the 
first nations of Europe? 

"The salvation of the kingdom lay in the fact that her 
statesmen recognized the difficulties involved in this hetero- 
geneous realm, divided as it was by the English province of 
Hanover and completely surrounded by jealous rivals. The 
Prussian leaders wisely and successfully set themselves to gain 
favor in Germany and to obtain for their kingdom a prominent 
position in European affairs as the champion of German 
unity." 

V. Austria. 

As the dark clouds of revolution were lowering upon France, 
Joseph II died. We have already noticed his alliance with 
Catherine the Great in the war with Turkey for the pur- 



158 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



pose of extending his eastern borders. He suppressed a revolt 
in the Austrian Netherlands, but his army was defeated by 
the rebels in the next revolt when an attempt was made to tax 
Belgium to defray the cost of the war with Turkey, which 
ended in the Netherlands separating from Austria and form- 
ing a republic. 

Hungary's opposition to Joseph's policy regarding German 
unity which threatened to separate her from the Empire was 
only silenced by special privileges and wholesale concessions. 
His attempts at reform were a failure, and at the dawn of 
the era of our present study his brother Leopold II "encoun- 
tered a situation which required all his marvelous ability as 
a ruler." 

Leopold had a clearer vision of the difficulties that stood in 
the way of the consolidation of the Empire, among which were 
the geographical positions of his lands, the mixture of races 
and consequent divergence of customs, laws and beliefs. He 
began at once to conciliate Hungary and then by force brought 
Belgium into subjection, in which he was supported by Eng- 
land and Prussia. 

1. Influence of the French Revolution. 

The French queen was the sister of Leopold. The effect 
of the Revolution was probably felt more keenly in Austria 
than by any other neighboring state. 

2. The Treaty of Campo Formio. 

In this treaty of what sections was Austria deprived by 
Napoleon, and what did she receive? Note the loss of these 



possessions in the Treaty of Presburg after the Austerlitz 
campaign. 

3. In what manner did the Confederation of the Rhine de- 
prive the term Holy Roman Empire of any significance, and 
how did it affect the imperial title of Francis II? 

4. In the reorganization of Austria and Germany what in- 
fluences operated in arousing a strong patriotism, but what 
results followed the campaign of 1809? 

5. Review the facts regarding the Reconstruction with spe- 
cial reference to the gains of Austria as recognition of her 
assistance in the overthrow of Napoleon. 

The Chart. 

The Chart is designed to be helpful to the student in the 
study of the facts in furnishing an outline and holding the 
facts in proper relation. The whole period may now be briefly 
reconstructed by the means of the Chart. Grasp the various 
divisions of the Chart showing the connection of the French 
Revolution with the Napoleonic Era and the convergence of 
all lines to Waterloo and the Reconstruction. The study of 
this period has shown us the great advance that has been made 
in democratic ideas paving the way for the next period — Na- 
tional and Democratic Europe. To fully appreciate that larger 
civilization we should be sure that we have grasped the great 
significance of this mighty conflict in which these great prin- 
ciples of freedom and democracy were involved, and at Water- 
loo the way finally opened for their larger expression. 



(National and (Democratic Surope 
Sreat Britain (Reform. {Measures. (from Seorge IV to Queen Victoria 



l.Period of (Reforms. 

Seorge IV, 1820-30. She 

"tfW« M 1816-20. Ganning's 

ministry. Wellington's. 

O'Gonnelh Gatholicism. 



William IV, 1830-37. (Re- 
form. Slavery abolished. 
B.Queen Victoria, 1837-1901. 
do the Oriental Wars,W42 



do Grimean War, 
1836. Slack tfea open* 
to the world's commerced 

(from 1856-70. tfepoy rebel- 



(Melbourne ministry. PeeVs\ lion. Palmer ston,Sladstone. 



Sri 



(from Waterloo to (fedau 



\.(fecond Gonsfilutional 
(Monarchy, 1815-1848. 
jGouis X VIH, 1814-24. 
Gharles X,m24-30. Ques- 
tion of popular govern- 
ment. (Revolutions. 



2.(fecond (Republic,l84S-B2. 

(Socialists and the red flag. 

(fall of the (Republic. 
Q.efecond Smpire, 1832-70. 

Gommercial and literary 
development. Siugo, (faine, 



Germany (from Gonfederation to Smpire 



(fardou, (Renan,efc> 
Grimean war. Italian 
war,&avoy and (Nice. 
(franco-Sermon War, 1870. 
(Defeat at dfedan. (Republi- 
can government movementl 



l.dhe Gonfederation 1815*86 

(State Gonstitutions. 

She (Manifesto of 1820. 

dhe dollverein. unity. 
(Southern Surope , Slaly, Sreece, (Jfurkey, (Spain, Portugal 



(frederick William IV, 1840. 
dhe (Revolution of 1848. 
William i,l&Gl-88.@ismarek 
Snd of Gonfederaey. 



2.(North Sermon Gonfed- 
eraii on, 1866-70. 

Gonstitution. (fhe Wan, 
Smpire proclaimed. 



do (fhe 
(franco- 
Serman 

War 
1815-1870 



l.dtaly. Under foreign rule. 
War of liberation, 1859. 
Saribaldi, Victor Smmarmel. 



2.Sreece. (Turkish, Venetian, 
Ottoman rule, 1468-1880. 
independence. 



(Scandinavia jGow Gauntries. (Switzerland, (Russia 



&.durkey. Sastern Question. 
4,(Spain under $ourbons.^ 
B.Portugal. Political 
struggles. 



\.(Sweden and (Norway. 

Gharles XIV, 1818-44. 

Oscar 1, 1844-59. 

Gharles XV, 1859-72. 
2.{Qecline of (Denmark. 



Ghart 11 



S.$elgium and (Netherlands 
united,181S. (Holland un- 
der the (House of Grange* 

4.(Switzerland. /fesuits ex- 
pelled. Gonstitution, 1848. 



&.(Ru88ia.J0ast years of 
(Alexander \.(Nicholas^ 
1825-55. Grimean 
War. Qlexander* 
11,1855-81. 



NATIONAL AND DEMOCRATIC EUROPE 



A great revolutionary period such as we have passed 
through in the preceding study is indicative of a radical change 
in the thought of the people. The French Revolution almost 
immediately succeeded the American, and was influenced by 
it. There was an enlarging consciousness of freedom, a great 
awakening along democratic lines. The reason why various 
measures in England became the occasion of the demand of 
the colonies for independence was because the larger spirit of 
freedom was already well developed. And we saw in the dis- 
cussion of the causes of the French Revolution that the funda- 
mental cause is not to be looked for in certain economic con- 
ditions but in the intellectual awakening of the people. Mod- 
ern history is the record of a constantly increasing individual- 
ism. The ancient conception of the individual for the State has 
been reversed — it is the State for the individual. It is along 
this line that modern thought and development proceed. The 
national consciousness passes through a period of larger un- 
derstanding that becomes inconsistent with the old order of 
things under which it existed. It awakens to this discrepancy 
and in order to install new conditions consistent with its new 
views and appreciations sometimes finds itself in a sharp con- 
flict with the old order, and by a revolution must fight its way 
to its higher station. When a nation believes it is capable of 
self-government it refuses to lie passively at the feet of any 



power if there is any way of securing its rights. When 
Napoleon attempted to establish an Empire outside of France 
he failed to understand the extent that democracy had de- 
veloped in Europe. That for which the nations fought in the 
Napoleonic Era is that which they will more greatly exemplify 
in the next and following periods. The principle for which 
America fought in her Revolution is that which will distin- 
guish her advancing civilization. Thus it is that we must 
clearly see what it was that dominated in this revolutionary 
period, in order both to follow the historic evolution and to 
understand what the next period is to represent. 

A glance at the chart will indicate that our present study 
will carry us from the close of the Napoleonic Era to the 
Franco-German War. 

Great Britain. 

The period upon which we now enter is one of the most im- 
portant in British history. Among the epoch-making events 
of this period were parliamentary reforms, Catholic emancipa- 
tion and the measures that instituted free trade. 

From 1816 to 1820 was a period of reaction. Efforts to 
improve the social conditions were opposed by the conserva- 
tives who feared that the adoption of some of the measures 
proposed would precipitate a revolution. As a check upon 



161 



1 62 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



seditious meetings and organizations the government passed 
the Five Acts which for a time had a quieting effect. 

Then followed the Manchester riot in which eighty thou- 
sand people demanded public reforms. This led Parliament 
to pass the notorious Six Acts by which public political meet- 
ing were forbidden. 

I. George IV, 1820- 1830. 

The men who figured largely during this reign were : 

1. Canning who followed Castlereagh as foreign minister. 
He adopted a liberal policy and opposed the Holy Alliance in 
its interference in foreign affairs. Guizot says of him, "He 
transferred England from the camp of resistance and of 
European order into the camp of liberty." 

2. The Duke of Wellington who became premier of the new 
cabinet whose chief support in the House of Commons was 
Robert Peel. 

3. Daniel O'Connell who was raised to the highest position 
in Ireland was elected to Parliament in 1828 and devoted him- 
self to Catholic emancipation. 

II. William IV, 1830-1837. 

He came to the throne in the midst of financial distress and 
reform agitation, while the July Revolution in France was 
contributing to the discontent of the people. The leading in- 
terests of this reign were: 



1. Parliamentary Representation. "The chief popular de- 
mand in England and that which led to the greatest event of 
William's reign was for reform in the election of the House 
of Commons." 

2. The Great Reform Bill. 

This was passed by the House in 1832 after the greatest 
agitation it had occasioned for two years, and at times seemed 
to threaten civil war. "This was one more great victory for 
the people, for though the laboring class did not receive much 
greater consideration, yet the farmers and the city property- 
holders were able to take their share in the government, and 
the House of Commons became wholly independent from the 
peerage and a truly elective and representative body." 

3. The Emancipation Act. 

The abolition of negro slavery in the British colonies in 
1833- 

777. Queen Victoria, 1837-1901. 

It is with the reign of Queen Victoria that the history of 
the present age in England may be said to begin. The follow- 
ing things are of special importance in studying the history 
of this period: 

(1) The reference of the various movements to their fun- 
damental causes. It has been the aim of this treatise to em- 
phasize this with reference to all historical movements, and 



MODERN ERA. 



163 



to show that until such causes are discovered history has been 
studied only in a superficial way. 

(2) The governmental policy prevailing in each adminis- 
tration. A clear apprehension of these policies is essential to 
an intelligent understanding of the general development. 

(3) The essential principle operative in the ministry of 
Peel. The same with reference to Gladstone and a comparison 
of these men in their influence upon English affairs. 

(4) England's policy of free trade and the laws that had 
special effect upon her commercial welfare. 

1. The state of England at the accession of Queen Victoria. 

We cannot do better than quote the eloquent description of 
Sir Archibald Alison : "Resplendent with glory, teeming with 
inhabitants, overflowing with riches, boundless in extent, the 
British Empire at the accession of Queen Victoria seemed the 
fairest and most powerful domain on earth. It had come vic- 
torious through the most terrible strife which ever divided 
mankind, and, more than once, in the course of it, singly con- 
fronted Europe in arms. It had struck down the greatest con- 
queror of modern times. It still retained the largest part of 
the continent of North America, and a new continent in Aus- 
tralia had been recently added, without opposition, to its 
mighty domains. All the navies of the world had sought in 
vain to wrest from the hands of its sovereign the sceptre of 
the ocean ; all the industry of man, to rival in competition the 
produce of its manufactures or the wealth of its merchants. 



It had given birth to steam navigation, which bridged the At- 
lantic, and railways, which had more than halved distance. It 
had subdued realms which the Macedonian phalanx could not 
reach and attained a dominion beyond what the Roman legions 
had conquered. An hundred and twenty millions of men, at 
the period of its highest prosperity, obeyed the sceptre of 
Alexander; as many in after times, were blessed by the rule 
of the Antonines ; but an hundred and fifty millions peopled 
the realms of Queen Victoria; and the sun never set on her 
dominions, for before 'his declining rays had ceased to illu- 
minate the ramparts of Quebec, his ascending beams flamed on 
the minarets of Calcutta.' " 

2. A general outline of the leading events of the period. 

(1) Discontent in Canada and Jamaica, and Chartist agita- 
tions in England. 

(2) The new postal service, a boon to the nation. 

(3) The Oriental Wars, 1838- 1846. 

(4) From the fall of Melbourne to the Crimean War. 

(a) The ministry of Peel. The improved conditions of 
the country and repeal of the Corn Laws. The Irish famine 
and resignation of Peel. 

(b) England's policy of free trade, Gladstone the new 
chancellor of the exchequer and his important measure. 

(c) The Crimean War and the Black Sea opened to the 
world's commerce. 

(5) The Growth of Democracy. 

Extending through the balance of this period and on to the 



164 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



present time are the legislative measures directed to the de- 
velopment of British democracy. 

(a) The Sepoy rebellion, 1857. 

(b) The way opened for the Jews to enter Parliament. 

(c) Palmerston's second ministry, 1859-1865. 
The commercial treaty with France. 

The international significance of the Anglo-Chinese treaty 
of i860. 

England's attitude to the civil war in America. 

(d) The Gladstone-Disraeli campaign, the Fenian move- 
ment the issue. 

(e) Gladstone's first ministry. 

Irish reforms and compulsory education. 

Questions and Topics for Study. 

Gardiner's Students' History of England, pp. 914-952, and 
Elements of English Constitutional History by Montague, will 
be found helpful. 

I. Period of George IV. 

(1) With what opposition was Canning confronted in his 
efforts in behalf of the Catholics? 

(2) What principle in foreign affairs did he introduce that 
conflicted with the Holy Alliance? 

(3) In what important foreign policy was he assisted by 
the United States? 



(4) How did Wellington co-operate with O'Connell and 
what did Catholic Emancipation involve? 

2. Period of William IV. 

(1) Reform in the election of the House of Commons was 
the chief event of this reign. How was Parliamentary repre- 
sentation effected? 

(2) What was the nature of the victory in the Great Re- 
form Bill? 

(3) Note the general advance of the period in the emanci- 
pation of the negro, legislation regarding the poor and Muni- 
cipal Reform Bill. 

(4) George Eliot's Felix Holt whose scenes are laid in this 
period. 

3. Period of Queen Victoria. 

(1) How was she related to George III? 

(2) What caused the fall of Melbourne? 

(3) How did Peel handle the problems that confronted him, 
and what did his premiership do for England? 

(4) Life and Work of Peel. Thursfield's Peel. 

(5) What were the Corn Laws, and was the measure re- 
pealing them a wise one? 

(6) What was the cause of the Crimean War, and what was 
the great result? 

(7) Stories of the War. Tolstoi's Sebastopal. 



MODERN ERA. 



165 



(8) What effect did the Sepoy Rebellion have upon the 
government of India ? 

(9) State England's free trade -policy. How did Palmers- 
ton regard it? 

(10) Why did the nobility sympathize with the South in 
the American Civil War? 

(11) How did Gladstone figure in the financial reforms of 
this period? 

(12) What solution of the Irish land question did Gladstone 
offer during his first ministry? 

(13) The Modern English Period as described by Mrs. 
Ward's Marcella. 

France. 

With the fall of the Empire of Napoleon and the restora- 
tion of Louis XVIII a new era begins and France is to pass 
through a second series of experiments in government taking 
the forms successively of constitutional monarchy, republic 
and empire. The first of these for five years represented 
moderation, the next ten years it tended toward the Ultras, this 
was followed for the next decade by republican simplicity and 
in the end took on the form of royalism. 

The second stage, that of the republic, was a transitional 
period. Passing into the third form the development was 
toward liberalism following a period of reaction. 

During this period, from 1830 to 1870, three revolutionary 
movements were attended with unusual results. That of 1830 
"doomed despotic alliances for interference in the internal af- 



fairs of other states; that of 1848, which opened the way for 
socialism and universal suffrage, and that of 1870, which 
placed Europe in the attitude of armed neutrality. Socialism 
and militarism arising from definite causes powerfully in- 
fluenced politics, diplomacy and international progress. 
Finally, nationality and democracy, which had been neglected 
in the settlement of 1815, developed from the confused forces 
of the previous period, and, making the century a stormy era, 
grew to power." This briefly states the manner in which 
France emerged from the Napoleonic Era, and through suc- 
cessive changes advanced to nationality and democracy. 

For the study of this period the following works are recom- 
mended: A Political History of Europe Since 1814 by Seig- 
nobos ; Modern Europe by Phillips ; Constitutions and Docu- 
ments of France by Anderson. 

/. The Second Constitutional Monarchy. 

This extended from 181 5 to 1848. Louis XVIII was re- 
stored in 1814 and his reign continued to 1824. 

1. The intellectual revival. 

French agriculture and commerce had greatly suffered un- 
der the wars of Napoleon and the general condition of the 
people had greatly declined. With the new era began to de- 
velop that interest in art and culture that has become the pride 
of France. Romanticism in literature took the place of the 



1 66 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



colder forms influenced by Roman literature, and the ideal 
representation of nature and life became dominant. "Criti- 
cism, music and art revived; science and invention attracted 
notice; interest in education was aroused, and in 1833 France 
began to organize primary schools and to attack the dense 
ignorance of her masses, most of whom could not even read." 

2. To the July Monarchy. 

(1) Trace the four stages, indicated in the introductory 
statement, through which the constitutional monarchy passed. 

(2) What were some of the political questions with which 
the government experimented, and how were the Liberals dis- 
tinguished from the Ultras? 

(3) What was the cause of the Revolution of 1830 and 
what did it accomplish? 

3. From the July Monarchy to the Republic. 

The period between 1830 and 1848 was one of discontent. 
"The revolutionists demanded the glories of the Convention, 
the Rights of Man and the propagation of republican doc- 
trines. The old questions of suffrage, freedom of the press 
and the choice of ministers, arose again and again. 

(1) What instigated the Revolution of 1848 and what was 
its international significance? 

(2) How would you describe each of the rulers of this 
period ? 



77. The Second Republic. 

1. Note the manner in which the Revolution discredited 
France in the eyes of Europe in the establishment of a re- 
publican form of government. Why was this? 

2. What brought about the rise of Socialism and how was it 
signalized? What was responsible for the bloodshed of the 
five days of June? 

3. Trace the rise of Louis Napoleon to absolute power, and 
his tactics in becoming the head of an imperial dynasty as 
Napoleon III. 

4. The usurpation of Napoleon III. Victor Hugo's History 
of a Crime. 

III. The Second Empire. 

1. In what manner did Napoleon III attempt to make his 
reign resemble that of Napoleon I? 

2. What elements of progress and prosperity belong to the 
period from 1850 to 1870 relative to commerce, great enter- 
prises, expositions, etc. ? What treaty opened the way for free 
trade with England? 

3. Who were some of the prominent authors that distin- 
guished this period of the Empire? 

4. What part did France take in the Crimean War, and 
of what importance was the war to France? 

5. What was involved in the Italian War? What did Italy 
gain? What did Napoleon accomplish regarding Russia and 
Austria? 



MODERN ERA. 



167 



6. What were the causes of the Franco-German War? 
What advance had Prussia been making in military matters, 
and what contributed to the defeat of France? What were 
the terms of peace? 

7. Napoleon III and His Court, by Saint Armand. 

Germany. 

As we come to this stage of German development the stu- 
dent should trace the conditions from the formation of the 
German Empire and especially those which placed Prussia 
at the head of the German States. German affairs had been 
greatly influenced by the Austrian prime minister, Metternich, 
whose object was to prevent any movement tending to the en- 
largement and growth of Germany. We should see how the 
Congress of Vienna was operative in those conditions that 
were to effect the formation of the German States, and to note 
the influence of the French Revolution upon the larger polit- 
ical freedom of the States of Europe. The Germany at the 
close of the Napoleonic Era was a federal government which 
had represented no less than three hundred independent states. 
These had been reduced by Napoleon until there were but 
thirty-nine actual sovereigns. Thus we see the effect this period 
had upon these German States and how it was calculated to as- 
sist in the coming Germanic confederation. The necessity of 
such a confederation, of a strong central organization, was fully 
recognized. The only question was the best way of establish- 
ing it. Fears were entertained regarding Prussia and Austria, 



and some of the middle states opposed the organization of a 
strong central power. 

The period from 181 5 to 1870 presents to us two leading in- 
terests in German affairs: the German Confederation (1815- 
1866), and the North German Confederation (1866-1870). 

/. The Germanic Confederation. 

For the study of this whole period the student is referred to 
Modern Europe by Alison Phillips, and Bismarck and German 
Unity by Munroe Smith. 

The following questions will enable the student to trace the 
movements and their basic conditions of this period of Ger- 
manic confederation. 

1. To the Accession of William IV. 

( 1 ) What were the leading provisions of the constitution of 
the Confederation ? 

(2) What interest did university students take in political 
affairs represented by the Burschenschaft, and what was the 
immediate aim of this organization? What was attempted by 
the Carlsbad Decrees regarding these societies? 

(3) State the influence of the Paris Revolution of 1830 
upon the German liberal movement. 

(4) Who established the Zollverein and what did it effect? 

(5) When did William IV come to the throne of Prussia? 



i68 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



2. To the dissolution of the Confederation. 

(i) What brought about the revolutionary movement of 
1848 in Germany, and what effect did it have upon liberal 
tendencies? Note the various acts of the parliament, the 
prominence of Prussia, and the refusal of Frederick William 
to become emperor. How did the parliament end? 

(2) When did William I come to the throne? His great 
interest lay in a closer union of the German States. In 185 1 
Bismarck became prominent and upon him the king leaned 
for support and judgment in the affairs of State. This great 
statesman discovered that the reason why Germany had failed 
was "because of the neutrality of the two great states, Prus- 
sia and Austria, and felt that the only way to attain the de- 
sired end was for Prussia to pursue a policy entirely inde- 
pendent of Austria and to become the champion of German 
nationality." 

(3) In order to accomplish this purpose into what wars did 
Bismarck force Germany? 

(4) Following the Seven Weeks' War what Peace secured 
the supremacy of Prussia and dissolved the Germanic Con- 
federation ? 

II. The North German Confederation. 

This confederacy was organized by Bismarck under the con- 
viction that the Southern country was not ready to enter a 
German union This confederacy embraced only the states 



north of the Main River. In 1867 it framed a constitution 
which became the basis of the present constitution. 

1. What were the four main principles of this constitution 
and how did they distinguish Bismarck's statesmanship? 

2. State again the cause of the Franco-German War. What 
were Bismarck's designs that produced this conflict? 

3. How do you account for the unusual victories of the 
German army, and what was ceded to Germany by the treaty 
that followed? 

4. Note that this war was instrumental in bringing Northern 
and Southern states to desire the union of all Germany and 
thus laid the foundations of the German Empire. 

5. For the struggles toward unity following the Revolution 
of 1848 read Problematic Characters and Through Night to 
Light by Spielhagen. 

6. Bismarck and German Unity by Munxoe Smith. 

Southern Europe. 

The works of Seignobos and Phillips already referred to 
will be found especially helpful in the study of this section. 

/. Italy. 

It will be well to review the history of Italy from the end 
of the fourteenth century and to note that from that time Italy 
was without any national history. It comprised a number of 
independent cities and states. "During much of that period 



MODERN ERA. 



169 



the country was the chief battleground of Europe, the prize 
for which the sovereigns of France, Spain and Austria waged 
wars among themselves and with the Italian rulers, with the 
result, by the end of the seventeenth century, that the social 
and political condition of Italy was deplorable. The chief 
controlling power was Austria." Trace the events from the 
rise of the House of Savoy through the period of French 
domination and the revival of Austrian rule to the arousing 
of the national spirit in the period of our present study. 

1. The awakening of the national consciousness. The 
liberal principles which the French had brought to the Italians 
were effective in this new development and fanned the spark 
of nationality. 

How was this liberal movement in Italy affected by the 
Revolution of 1830 in Paris? 

2. What were the distinctive features of the league called 
"Young Italy," and how did its methods differ from those of 
the Carbonari? 

3. The leading diplomatist of Italy during the nineteenth 
century was Count Cavour. 

In what way did he help the cause of Italy by inducing 
Victor Emmanuel to participate in the Crimean War as an 
ally of England and France? 

4. What in northern Europe contributed to the plans of 
Victor Emmanuel? 

5. State the services rendered to Italy by Garibaldi. 

6. When did Rome become the capital of Italy ? 



//. Greece. 

After the fall of Constantinople in 1453 Greece passed first 
under Venetian rule until 1715, and then into the hands of 
Turkey. Under this despotic rule the Greeks maintained their 
national spirit and contrived in many ways to restore their 
national prestige. 

1. What was it in Grecian institutions that stimulated the 
spirit of independence? 

2. What part did the secret society, the Hetaeria, play in 
the war for independence? 

3. What were the conditions in England, France and Ger- 
many in 1821 when this nine years' struggle began, and why 
did Europe support Greece in her fight for independence? 
When and where did the great states compel Turkey to grant 
freedom to Greece? 

4. How did the reign of George I benefit Greece and when 
did England cede to her the Ionian Isles? What influence 
did this have upon the determination of Greece to recover the 
old Hellenic territory? 

5. Halleck's poem, Marco Bozzaris, the Leonidas of Mod- 
ern Greece. 

III. Turkey. 

The great question in Europe for a considerable period has 
been the "Eastern Question." The eyes of Europe have been 
upon the disintegrating empire of the Sultan. Russia espe- 
cially has been anxious to lay hold of that territory and thus 



170 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



increase her dominion about the Black Sea. The great Euro- 
pean States came to realize that the balance of power that 
would accrue to Russia in seizing these domains was a much 
more serious thing than the independent existence of Turkey. 
Hence the attitude of England, France and Austria in sup- 
porting the Turkish rule and thus maintaining the balance of 
power. The Treaty of Paris following the Crimean War sus- 
tained the integrity of Turkey which was the soul of the 
"Eastern Question." Thus Turkey has been for years in the 
hands of the powers and has been described as the "sick man 
of Europe." 

i. The Eastern Question. Modern Europe, by Phillips. 

2. What has characterized the rule of Turkey over her sub- 
jects? 

3. What revolts against Turkish rule have been made in 
late years? 

4. What states came under her dominion, and how many of 
them are still under her control ? 

IV. Spain. 

In a former study we saw the prestige enjoyed by Spain and 
the importance of her political influence in Europe. At the 
close of the sixteenth century Spain was in a state of declen- 
sion. Philip V of Anjou, a Bourbon prince, was placed on the 
throne by the war of Spanish Succession, and that dynasty has 
continued to rule Spain to the present time with the exception 
of the displacement from 1808 to 1814 when Napoleon placed 



his brother Joseph upon the throne, and a second interruption 
which occurred in 1868. In 1874 the Bourbon line was re- 
stored when Alfonso XII came to the throne. 

1. Under whose regency did Spain come after the death of 
Alfonso? 

2. Into what distress was the country thrown during this 
period ? 

3. What great Spanish statesman brought Spain out of the 
crises of this regency? 

V. Portugal. 

1. In what year did Portugal come to her independence? 

2. Who established the present reigning house in Portugal? 
3,. Of what king was Dom Pedro, the ruler of Brazil, the 

son? When did he succeed to the throne of Spain, and what 
party did he lead in the political struggles from 1831 to 1834? 

4. What has been the issue between the progresives and con- 
servatives since the time of Dom Pedro ? 

5. How do you explain the low condition of civilization in 
Spain and Portugal as compared with that of other European 
States? 

Other European States. 

Since the Reconstruction of 1815 a deep interest in govern- 
mental affairs on the part of the people has developed in 
Scandinavia, the Low Countries, Switzerland and Russia. The 



MODERN ERA. 



171 



period has shown a marked advance in democracy and political 
liberty. 

I. Scandinavia. 

The Political History of Europe by Seignobos treats of the 
Scandinavian countries in ch. xviii. 

1. What were the conditions in Sweden and Norway when 
Bernadotte came to the throne? 

2. What sort of a union existed between these two coun- 
tries? 

3. Note the prosperity that existed under Charles XV. 

4. When and by whom was Denmark deprived of 
Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg? 

5. Problems of Norwegian life. Bjornson's Magnild. 

II. The Low Countries. 

1. By what Congress were Belgium and the Netherlands 
united under a ruler of the House of Orange? 

2. What religious differences brought about friction and 
rebellion and finally the independence of Belgium? 

3. Note the state of prosperity in Belgium during the reigns 
of Leopold and Leopold II. 

The student will find ch. viii of Political History of Europe 
a good treatment of this section. 

777. Switzerland. 

The student is referred to ch. ix of Political History of 
Europe. 



The independent cantons were united by Napoleon in a 
Swiss federation. Neutrality was guaranteed the Swiss Con- 
federation by the Congress of Vienna. 

1. When were the Jesuits driven out of Switzerland? 

2. During what revolutionary period did Switzerland secure 
a better constitution. 

3. What modern government does the Swiss government 
resemble ? 

IV. Russia. 

The Political History of Europe by Seignobos treats of 
Russia and Poland in ch. xix. 

The reign of Alexander I continued for ten years after the 
fall of Napoleon. He disappointed his subjects at the close 
of the Napoleonic era in failing to institute the reforms they 
had expected of him, an expectation justified by the splendid 
beginning of his reign. He entrusted the internal affairs of 
the Empire to General Araktcheyeff. 

1. State some of the autocratic measures of this general. 

2. How did he seek to break up secret organizations that 
sought larger political liberty? 

3. Why were military colonies established in Russia? 

4. The policy of Nicholas I, the younger brother of Alex- 
ander I, has been described by the words nationality, auto- 
cracy and orthodoxy. What does that signify as applied to 
the events of his reign? 



172 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



5. What were the foreign wars of Nicholas I, what did they 
bring to Russia, and what was his most disastrous war? 

6. What resulted from the Polish revolt in 1830? 

7. When did Alexander II come to the throne? 

(1) His radical educational reforms. 

(2) Political reforms and industrial enterprises. 

(3) What was his motive in seeking to make the peasants 
a land-holding class? 

8. Domestic and social life of the Russians. Tolstoi's Anna 
Karenina. 

The Chart. 

The chart is an epitome of this half century of European 
democratic development. It brings the events together in a 



manner that they may be easily related. By the means of the 
chart the student can with ease see the contemporaneous move- 
ment between these states, having the facts and dates before 
him on a single page. It is of the first importance that we 
grasp the fundamental changes in European thought leading 
these states to those higher planes of democracy and liberty 
and thus helping to solve the world-problem. As we review 
this period the questions that arise are. What have the strug- 
gles and institutions of this period done for the larger freedom 
and development of the individual life? How have the move- 
ments and events conspired to bring about certain great re- 
sults? Not so much who came off victorious in the Crimean 
War, for example, but what great principles were operative in 
the struggle? If we have caught the spirit of this period we 
are prepared to follow the continued development in the next. 



SVational and {Democratic Surope 



Great Britain 



£?t 



{ fyemocracv under Victoria. 

1. (Disraeli, Sngland's influence. \ 

2.Gladstone's ministry, 1880-86. 

Soer war. Srouble in Sgypt, '82. 
3.eralisburws ministry. 

tsfrish Question, 1887. 
4,Gladstone's fourth ministry: 

Siome t&ule $ill, 1893. 
H.&rom Salisbury's third ministry to the 

death of Queen Victoria, 1901. She JEand 

Ctct. ®oer war. Victorian age of literature. 
Sdivard\\\. 1901-10. 




l.Sducational and jGand Purchase $ills. 
2.Sariff policy and Sibet expedition. 
Z.Woman's Suffrage Sill and *&udget, 
SeoraeW.imO. 



England's prosperity, strength and ideals. 

German Smpire 

1 .William I, 1871-88. German imperial Gonsti- 

iuiion. Sriple Alliance. Golonial expansion. 
2,&rederick III and William U, ffismarck and 

tfocialism. Gaprivi. J2a€falle and (Marx. 

Siohenlohe and Gounl von $ulow, 
^.Germany's political isolation. 

Srouble with Sfrance over (Morocco 1907-08- 
4,German culture and educational system. 

jQiterary contributions from jGessing to 



l.Shird zflepublic established. She 
Gonstiiution of 1875 the present 
basis of government. 
^.Political trouble s-$oulanger t Pana^ 
ma, (Dreyf us, Ghurch and estate. 
3. French colonies, ^(Russian Alliance. 
4.iTrance today a parliamentary republic. 
&.Gullure.(firong in science, lit era'tur cart* 

Southern Surope 

Surke" i j She Eastern Question, (Revolts and 

massacres, She SalkanWar,1912* 
OP pain Under the Sourbons. Spanish Ameri- 



can "vOar, and loss of colonies. 
Portugal Progressives versus Gonservatives, 



dfcandinavia, jQow Gounlries. (Russia 



SYorway independence. 1905. 
(Tfeiherlands S he Si ague. 



(Russia Alexander II. War with Surkey I8?7. 



Alexander III, 1881-9 4. (Treatment of&ews. 
Sficholas II. War with tfapan. devolution. 
tMorocco trouble 1906-08. She three (Dumas* 

. She Sar Sast 

Ghina Progressive tendency. Gonstiiution. 



f <Pavan Shree Periods of (Modern $>apan. 
1. &rom 1549 to the end of feudalism, 1871. 
2.Groivth of Smpire to defeat of Ghina, 1895. 
3,(7rom 1900 to the present time. (Defeat of 



Sf/ommsen-Go'efhe,Ofchiller,(Richter etc. /J«y0-19S3\5^ USSia, Prestige. Sio's statesmanship. 



Ghart 12 



FROM THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 



We come to the closing period of European history which is 
a still larger development of those principles and tendencies 
distinguished in the preceding period. Looking forward to 
the end we can also look back to the beginning of the great 
movement. Into this mighty stream of our life, from the van- 
tage ground of the present moment, we can see all the tribu- 
taries flowing, contributing to the great general result. The 
currents were not always easy to follow. One great historic 
billow has been caught up in the arms of another and almost 
lost to view. But the general life-stream has moved on, and 
the general tendency has been a forward and upward one. 
Man has struggled with his problems, facing them and be- 
wildered by them in one age and solving them in the next. 
What we call his doubts were many times but faith struggling 
with its difficulties, for how often has a great age of positive 
conviction and belief been preceded by an age of doubt. 
Thought moves in great currents, but we must see how the 
main stream catches up these tributaries and bears them on, 
commingling the elements and making them contributory to 
the general result. The principles of one age have become the 
practices of the next. The Roman Empire passed away but 
delivered nearly all the elements which are met with in the 
progressive character of our civilization. Great civilizations 
seemed to be lost in the back currents of the world's life but 



eventually they swing again into the main stream and flow on 
a mighty living force. The study of history is a standing at 
the sources, and the discovery of the causes and conditions of 
the ebb and flow of human life and activity; to watch and 
understand the confluence of many streams ; to follow them in 
the swirling torrents of conflict and see them as they emerge 
again into the placidity of peace and quiet. The twentieth 
century in which we live is the inheritor of the ages, but if we 
are to have an intelligent appreciation of our inheritance we 
must be intelligent students of the ages. To know what we 
are is to know what we have been. "Man know thyself" is an 
injunction that involves a knowledge of his historic being. 
Within the confines of our modern life mingle the currents and 
eddies of the centuries, and we can only approach ourselves by 
the way of the ages. What we were at any previous time is a 
partial interpretation of what we are at the present time. As 
we attempt to understand these last moments of human history, 
and to grasp the problems that belong to this present age, let 
us be sure that we have properly pieced together the past, and 
have some clear general apprehension, not simply of events, 
but of the fundamental causes that produced them, and a true 
philosophical understanding of that to which they have con- 
tributed. 



175 



176 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



Great Britain. 

The student should review the first section of Chart 11 and 
follow the movement in Great Britain from George IV to 
Gladstone's first ministry under Victoria in order to get the 
direct connection between those events and the present study. 
Our last notice was that of the Irish Reform Bills and edu- 
cation made compulsory in England. 

/. Democracy Under Victoria. 

Russia took advantage of the war between France and Ger- 
many to set aside her agreement regarding the neutrality of the 
Black Sea, the result accomplished by the Crimean War. Eng- 
land strongly protested but Germany advised that she not at- 
tempt to enforce the treaty. Yielding to this advice raised 
such a criticism by the opposition in Parliament that Gladstone 
resigned in 1873. His ministry of five years had done much 
for England in the way of much important legislation. 

1. Disraeli's second ministry. 

(1) Note how this ministry by its foreign policy increased 
England's prestige in the East. 

(2) What troubles with Turkey arose at this time and how 
were they settled? 

(3) In what way did the wars in South Africa bring dis- 
credit to Disraeli that led to his retirement in 1880? 

2. Gladstone's second ministry. 



(1) State the cause and outcome of the first Boer War. 

(2) What action in Egypt in 1882 resulted in the great im- 
provement of that country? 

(3) What precipitated the troubles in Khartum? 

(4) What significance attached to Gladstone's first Home 
Rule Bill, and what was the result? 

3. Salisbury's second ministry. 

The student should note in what manner the continuance or 
retirement of a ministry was determined by measures pro- 
posed. 

4. Gladstone's fourth ministry. 

How did his second Home Rule Bill differ from the first 
and how was it received? 

5. What principle was distinguished in all of Gladstone's 
measures? How would you compare him with Disraeli ? Was 
he a greater statesman than Bismarck? 

6. Life of Gladstone by Morley. One of the best biograph- 
ical works of modern times. 

7. From Salisbury's third ministry to the death of Queen 
Victoria. 

(1) What was Salisbury's imperial policy? 

(2) What action did he take regarding Turkish atrocities? 

(3) How was China divided up by the powers following her 
defeat by Japan in 1894? What did England secure? 



MODERN ERA. 



177 



(4) What was the Venezuelan controversy and how was it 
settled ? 

(5) State the causes of the second Boer War. 

(6) How many colonies were united in the Australian fed- 
eration, and what is to be said for the advanced form of the 
Australian government ? 

(7) Death of Victoria. 

What were the distinguishing traits of this great sovereign, 
and how would you characterize her long reign, the longest in 
history ? 

At the death of Queen Victoria the Empire was in control 
of nearly one-half of the colonial possessions of the world, an 
area of more than eleven and a half million square miles, sup- 
porting a population of nearly three hundred and sixty-five mil- 
lions of people. 

8. The Victorian Age in Literature. 

(1) Who were the two leading poets of this period? 

(2) Name four of the great essayists. 

(3) Name the three great novelists. 

(4) How would you compare the Victorian with the Eliza- 
bethan Age in literature? 

II. King Edward. 

The Prince of Wales succeeded to the throne in 1901 at the 
age of sixty. He was well qualified for the high position both 
by his university education in Oxford and Cambridge, his ex- 



tensive travels, his seat in the House of Lords and as an 
earnest student of public questions. "King Edward is a nor- 
mal modern Englishman; he loves genuine sport and at the 
same time exhibits a high appreciation for art, science and 
literature." 

1. Who introduced the Land Purchase Bill and what were 
its provisions? 

2. What was the nature and issue of the Alaskan dispute 
with the United States? 

3. Note the socialistic tendencies in British colonies. In 
which are they most distinct? 

4. What would you say of Chamberlain's protective tariff 
as a commercial policy for Great Britain? Is it better than a 
free trade policy? 

5. What significance attached to the expedition into Tibet? 

///. George V. 

He succeeded to the throne upon the death of his father in 
1910 under peaceful and prosperous conditions. The outlook 
in England is that she will "continue in that liberal course 
which has made her a leader among nations. Selfishness has 
not been apparent in any degree in the activities of her modern 
statesmen. Their political measures have seemed to spring 
from a desire to better the condition of the people and to give 
them freedom in politics and religion. The inventive genius 
and the practical nature of the English have made their 
progress in science and invention most remarkable, while as 



i 7 8 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



a result of the development of her own resources and the en- 
couragement of commercial enterprises in her colonies and 
with the world at large, social conditions have been notably im- 
proved and the comforts and even luxuries of life are more 
widely distributed than ever before. A higher standard of 
morality was never maintained, nor has there ever been greater 
liberality or more genuine interest in religious matters." Gov- 
erned by such lofty ideals, and having solved so well govern- 
mental problems, and representing such a pure democracy 
together with the vast extent of her dominion, England stands 
as the great balancing power among the nations of the world. 

France. 

Our preceding study left France defeated at Sedan in the 
Franco-German War. With our present study this State en- 
ters upon a new period in her political, social and intellectual 
development. 

I. The Third Republic. 

For this period the student will find very helpful Contem- 
porary Europe, Asia and Africa by Andrews, and Anderson's 
Constitutions and Other Documents, also Hazell's Annual. 

The Second Empire lasted less than twenty years. Imme- 
diately after the defeat of Sedan the Third Republic was pro- 
claimed. 

i. How do you account for the rising of the Commune? 



The Downfall by Zola. A graphic picture of Sedan and the 
horrors of the Commune. 

2. What were the provisions of the Constitution of 1875, 
and what influence did Gambetta exercise at this time? 

3. How do the powers of the president compare with those 
of the president of the United States? 

4. To what extent is France self-governing? 

77. Political troubles. 

1. Describe the leading political parties in 1875. 

2. What were the pretensions of Boulanger and what sup- 
port did he receive in the attempt to crush the republic? 

3. Who constructed the Suez Canal and headed the com- 
pany for the construction of the Panama Canal? What was 
the Panama scandal? 

4. Explain the Dreyfus affair. What part did the novelist 
Zola take in the matter, and what was the final result? 

5. Five Years of My Life by Captain Dreyfus. 

6. What was the relation of Church and State in France as 
to lead the clergy to favor the overthrow of the republic? 
What did Gambetta mean by the expression "Clericalism, that 
is the enemy"? 

7. The tendency in France has been to agnosticism. Can 
this be accounted for by the political use to which religion has 
been put? 

777. The Colonies and Russian Alliance. 



MODERN ERA. 



179 



"In the present era of industrial cities and rapid ocean navi- 
gation, colonies have been found necessary to receive the excess 
of European population, to furnish many States with agricul- 
tural products, and to constitute naval bases in war and mar- 
kets for the world's manufactures. Under the influence of 
these great considerations, European States have resorted to 
many pretexts for establishing spheres of influence and finally 
complete sovereignty over the native tribes of Asia and Africa. 
In this activity France has held a prominent place." 

1. What is the extent of the French colonial empire? 

2. What treaty was made with England in 1898 regarding 
colonial rights in Africa? 

3. State the Moroccan situation involving France, England 
and Germany. 

4. What considerations influenced the alliance with Russia, 
and how did it affect Japanese claims relative to China, in 1894, 
and why did France not aid her ally in the late war with Japan ? 



IV. Culture. 

1. What has France done for science, art and literature un- 
der the third Republic ? 

2. Zola was the leading advocate of naturalism in literature. 
Name some of his works. 

3. In what measure have Daudet, Guy de Maupassant, Jules 
Verne, Taine and Renan contributed to the literature of this 
period? 



4. What have been the leading contributions in painting, 
sculpture and music? 

5. State some of the achievemewts in astronomy, chemistry, 
physics. What was the theory of Berthelot, and the discovery 
of Pasteur? 

"To all appearances France has at length succeeded in es- 
tablishing a strong and liberal government. The royalist par- 
ties, formerly known as the 'Right" in the legislatures, have 
practically disappeared. The extreme parties now consist of 
the clericals on the right and the socialists, leaning to revolu- 
tion and anarchism, on the left. Between these parties, and 
in actual control, are the conservative republicans and the op- 
portunists, who have no definite program beyond taking ad- 
vantage of every opportunity as it appears to strengthen the 
republic. The larger part of her population is still rural ; 
the republic maintains her pre-eminence in the more delicate in- 
dustries ; arbitration has further removed the necessity of war 
and permitted the development of the arts of peace. The 
activity of the socialists is so far from indicating worse con- 
ditions of labor that it indicates a great improvement and the 
awakening of the lower classes to higher needs. The struggle 
in the future will doubtless centre about socialism, however, 
and the republic's defense must be education and justice." 

German Empire. 

Our preceding study of Germany brought us to the Franco- 
German War, in which Bismarck accomplished his purpose 



i8o 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



and the German Empire was assured. It only remains for us 
to follow the developments in the Empire from 1871 to the 
present time. 

/. William I. 

The student should review the reign of William I up to this 
point. 

1. The German Imperial Constitution. 

The constitution of the North German Confederation re- 
quired but few changes to become the constitution of the Em- 
pire since it was formulated with a view to the southern states 
entering the union. The new instrument with provisions rela- 
tive to these states and the powers of the various departments 
of the government appeared April 16, 1871. 

(1) How are the two houses, the Federal Council and the 
Reichstag, composed, and what are their functions? 

(2) What limitations are laid upon the government by the 
Constitution respecting taxation? 

(3) What are the .provisions regarding the standing army? 

2. The emperor's policies. 

In the last years of his reign he did much for commercial 
development in the construction of great canals and in the 
currency reform of 1873. His imperial chancellor, Bismarck, 
secured a triple alliance in T883 between Germany, Austria and 
Italy. 



3. Colonial enterprises. 

In this Germany ranks third among the great powers. What 
do her colonial possessions include? 

II. William II. 

He succeeded his father, Emperor Frederick III, who 
reigned but ninety-nine days, his death being the result of an 
incurable disease from which he was suffering when he suc- 
ceeded to the throne. 

The policy of William II to maintain peace and at the same 
time the rights of Germany has contributed to the advanced 
position of the Empire. 

1. The Emperor and Bismarck. 

Socialism had assumed such importance that in the elections 
of 1890 it was the leading issue. 

( 1 ) What was Bismarck's view as to the best way of deal- 
ing with the problem? 

(2) What was the view of the emperor and how did the dif- 
ference in their views result in the fall of Bismarck? 

(3) Who became Bismarck's successor? 

4, 2. The Growth of Socialism. 

In i860 Karl Marx set forth his theory of Socialism the 
keynote of which was "the organization of labor and the ulti- 
mate ownership and control by the government of all the in- 



MODERN ERA. 



181 



struments of production and distribution of wealth." The 
emperor supported many of the reforms announced by the 
workingmen but warned them "that the demands of socialism, 
if granted, would undermine the government of the empire and 
the prosperity of the people." But the Social Democrats (as 
they are now called) have so steadily gained that in 1898 they 
polled two million votes which in 1903 was increased to three 
million, and elected eighty-one members of the Reichstag. 

3. What important commercial treaties were signed under 
Caprivi's chancellorship ? 

4. What were the naval and colonial developments during 
Hohenlohe's administration ? 

5. Count von Bulow's chancellorship. 

(1) What was the nature of the Venezuelan controversy 
with the United States in 1903, involving what American 
Doctrine? 

(2) In 1905 what trouble with France almost precipitated 
war? 

///. Germany's Isolated Position. 

For some years Germany has been left out of European 
alliances. The kaiser has attempted to alter this situation and 
to bring about alliances, but the part taken by Germany in the 
Boxer uprising in China and her position relative to the Russo- 
Japanese War have had the effect of holding her in political 
isolation. A statement by William II expressing his attitude 



to Great Britain met with serious criticism in the Federal 
Council and the Reichstag. 

IV. German Literature. 

Two centuries after Martin Luther, from whom the Ger- 
man language first received a literary form, a national litera- 
ture was developed. In the literary awakening Lessing figured 
in the creation of the first national drama. In the following 
century "the progress of German literature is hardly paralleled 
in history. The poet Goethe was the most famous of German 
writers because of his genius and philosophy and his ability to 
depict the universal characteristics of human nature." Fol- 
lowing Goethe the lyric poet Heine took the leading place 
among German men of letters. In philosophy and science 
were Leibnitz, Richter, the Humboldts, Kant, Fichte, Schelling 
and Hegel. The nineteenth century brought forth Freytag, von 
Scheffel, Von Ranke, Mommsen and Hauptmann's dramas ex- 
pressing opposition to the present social conditions. 

"Germany has long ranked first among the nations in its 
educational system and methods, its only serious rival being 
the United States. In recent times mammoth technical schools 
have been established in various parts of the empire, and they 
have contributed largely to the recent rapid industrial develop- 
ment." 

In the sphere of art Germany enjoys a high distinction, 
especially in the composition and interpretation of music, Ber- 
lin being the musical center of the world. 



1 82 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



Southern Europe. 



Turkey. 

1. Rebellion in Bulgaria in 1876 fol- 
lowed by massacres of Christians by the 
Turks. 

2. Accession of Abdul Hamid II, 
1876. Revolts in Servia and Monte- 
negro. 

3. Demand of the powers concerning 
reforms. 

4. International Congress at Berlin, 
1878. 

5. Armenian massacres, 1895-96. Mas- 
sacres in Macedonia, 1903. 

6. The Young Turk Party and re- 
storation of the Constitution, 1908. 

7. Results of the Revolution. 

8. The Balkan War of 1912. 



Spain. 

1. The Bourbon line re-established in 
1874 and accession of Alfonso XII, 
1874-86. 

2. The regency of Maria Christina, 
and the great services of the premier 
Sagasta. 

3. War with America, 1898, and loss 
of territory. 

4. King Alfonso XIII, 1902, a strong 
and liberal ruler seeking the restoration 
of Spain's progress and prestige. 



Portugal. 

1. Separation of Brazil from Portu- 
gal in the revolution of 1889, and the 1 
establishment of a Republican Govern- 
ment. 

2. King Charles I, 1889. A period of 
peace, but the burden of a heavy and 
constantly increasing debt. 



MODERN ERA. 



183 



Questions. 



1. Turkey. 



(1) What did England secure in the International Con- 
gress? In what relation did the Congress leave Bulgaria, 
Rumelia, Macedonia, Rumania, Servia and Montenegro ? This 
treaty did not settle the Eastern Question. 

(2) What prevented Europe from interfering as it should 
have interfered at the time of the great massacres of 1895-96? 

(3) In the Revolution of 1909 why was Abdul Hamid de- 
posed and who succeeded him? What good results followed 
the revolution? 

(4) What precipitated the Balkan War of 1912? Who 
were the allies against Turkey and what losses did she suffer? 
What European territory still lies under her control? 

2. Spain. 

(1) What were the troubles during the regency of Maria 
Christina, and what services did Sagasta render? 

(2) What precipitated the Spanish-American War? Did 
the Monroe Doctrine have anything to do with this? 



The developments in Turkey and the Balkan States during 
this period indicate the steady disintegration of the Turkish 
empire. In the last conflict the powers left her alone to fight 
her own battles. The purpose seems to be to drive Turkey 
out of Europe and back into Asia. But the problem of the 
Eastern Question is still awaiting solution. Constantinople 
holds a strategic position, and the balance of power regarding 
Turkish territory is still the concern of Europe. Palestine is 
still in the hands of the Turk and for some years past the 
Zionists have been active in endeavoring to secure from Tur- 
key a release of that territory, offering for the same a large 
sum of money. With Palestine in the hands of the Jew and 
brought under larger cultivation and industrial development a 
home would be offered for many Jews having patriotic feel- 
ings regarding their ancient land and a refuge from anti- 
Semitic persecution. Strong hopes are entertained by the 
Zionists that, in the present depleted condition of Turkey, 
these overtures for full possession of the land will be suc- 
cessful. 



184 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



Scandinavia, Low Countries, Russia. 

Ii. Gained independence in 1905. 
2. Provision for arbitration in the event of future disputes with S\ 
3. A constitutional monarchy. Accession of Prince Charles. 

[. Christian IX, 1863-1906. 

2. Resemblance of Danish government to that of England. 
Denmark 3. A period of prosperity. 

4. Establishment of the Lutheran religious creed. 

5. King Frederick VIII, 1906. 



r eden. 



Netherlands 



Belgium 



Russia 



1. Regency of Queen Emma, 1890. 

2. Extensive colonial interests. 

3. The International Peace Conference, 1899, and permanent selection of the Hague. 

1. The Kongo Free State placed under the rule of Belgium in 1885. 

2. The right of annexing this district granted. 

1. War with Turkey, 1877. Treaty of Berlin. 

2. Alexander III. Reform policy. 

3. Alexander's policy regarding the Jews. 

4. Nicholas II, 1894. Commercial enterprises and colonial expansion. 

5. War with Japan, 1904-05. Terms of the Treaty. 

6. Revolutionary conditions in Russia and beginning of representative government. 

7. The three Dumas, 1906-1907. 



MODERN ERA. 



Questions. 
I. Norway. 

(i) By what treaty was the separation of Norway from 
Sweden effected? 

(2) What was the relation of the queen of Prince Charles 
to Edward VII of England? 

(3) What is meant by a constitutional monarchy? 

2. Denmark. 

Note the difference between the Danish government and 
that of England in the larger power vested in the king of the 
former. 

3. Netherlands. 

(1) What are some of the island possessions of the Nether- 
lands ? 

(2) At what place was established a permanent interna- 
tional tribunal for arbitration among the nations ? When did 
the Second Peace Conference convene at this point, how many 
nations were represented and what questions were considered ? 

What does such a tribunal signify as to modern tendencies ? 

4. Belgium. 

Can you give a reason why the neutral territory in Africa 
should be placed under the rule of Belgium? 



5. Russia. 

(1) What czar prosecuted the war with Turkey in 1877, 
and what was the occasion of it? 

(2) What effect did the assassination of his father have 
upon the reform policy of Alexander III? 

(3) What was his treatment of the Jews, and what was his 
object? 

(4) What advantage did Russia take of the defeat of China 
by Japan in 1895 ? 

(5) What was the cause of the war with Japan? What 
prestige did Japan's victory secure to her as a world power? 
Who suggested the Treaty and where did it take place ? What 
effect did the war have upon Russian trade and prestige? 

(6) Trace the tendencies in Russia leading to the demand 
for representative government. 

(7) What significance attached to the three Dumas, and 
what measures were brought forward? 

The general development of the period in these States is 
seen in various respects. The humiliation of Russia by Japan 
is one of the great events of the period in distinguishing the 
remarkable advance of the latter. While defeat has meant the 
loss of prestige to Russia the war has undoubtedly had its 
compensations in leading the people to see in what their weak- 
ness and strength lie. The demand is for a larger democracy 
and the establishment of those institutions that will insure 
greater political liberty. The war with Japan was a discovery 



186 ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 

not simply of what Japan had become but of Russian needs, I and the result in the end will be the betterment of that state. 

Japan. 



Ancient. 

1. No trustworthy history prior to 660 B. C, the Japanese 
date for their first Mikado. 

2. Civilization promoted under Sujin, the tenth Mikado. 

3. Corea subdued by Fingu-Kogo, 201-269 A. D. 
Chinese literature and civilization introduced. 

4. Their religion a state religion. 



Medieval. 

1. Buddhism introduced 552 A. D. 

2. The government at first a dual government, then a feudal 
system. 

3. War between the clans, Taira and Minamoto, during 
twelfth century. 

4. Invasion of Mongol Tartars, 1281. 

5. War of the Chrysanthemums, 1336-1392. 



Modem. 



1. Introduction of Christianity, 1549. 

2. Christianity proscribed, 1614, and massacre of Chris- 
tians. 

3. Feudalism fully established in the Tokugama dynasty in 
the seventeenth century. 

4. Treaty negotiated by Commodore Perry in 1854 opened 
ports to foreign trade. 

5 Feudalism abolished, 1871. 



6. Railroads and other improvements. 

7. Activity of Christian missionaries. 

8. Defeat of China, 1894, but forced to relinquish claims in 
Chinese empire. 

9. War with Russia, 1904-1905. Defeat of Russia and 
terms of Treaty at Portsmouth. 

10. Treaties with foreign nations, 1907-1908. 

11. Assassination of Ito the "Bismarck of Japan." 



MODERN ERA. 



187 



The rapid development of Japan is one of the political 
spectacles of the present time. She has commanded the at- 
tention of the world by her remarkable advance along all 
lines, and especially by that versatility by which she has ad- 
justed herself to modern conditions and has taken her place 
among the nations of the world. By the adoption of the 
methods of Western civilization it is interesting and instruc- 
tive to contrast her progress with that of China. While Japan, 
as also China and Africa, belong to the far East, we include 
these countries in our present study because of the manner in 
which they are bound up with European interests. 

Questions. 

1. What elements in the Japanese character and her econ- 
omic conditions explain her rapid development? 

2. Since the abolition of feudalism what has been her pre- 
vailing system of government? 

3. What necessities demanded the war with Russia? 

4. In what respects did her treaties with other nations in- 
volve the integrity of and provide for the open door in China ? 

5. When did she enter into her compact with Great Britain, 
and what is the full nature of that compact? 

6. What was the misunderstanding with the United States 
and Canada in 1907? 

7. How is Marquis Ito regarded as a statesman and what 
did he do for the present plan of government? What was 
the motive in his assassination? 



China. 

Within the past few years considerable interest has been 
awakened in China relative to her political institutions and 
system of education. This interest was clearly indicated in 
1905 when the Emperor sent a commission to Europe and 
America to study political institutions and the educational 
methods of the Western world. When this commission re- 
turned they reported "that China was the only large country 
that was governed without a constitution, and the commis- 
sion earnestly requested the emperor to issue a decree fixing 
five years as the limit for adopting a constitutional form of 
government. In September, 1906, a decree promising a con- 
stitution when the people were ready for it was issued." A 
larger interest in education expressed itself particularly in the 
establishment of schools for girls. 

A strong attitude has been assumed regarding the presence 
of Japanese and Russian troops in Manchuria, which was ex- 
pressed by Prince Chung to the effect "that permanent peace 
in the Far East depends upon the withdrawal of both of these 
nations from Manchuria and the ultimate withdrawal of Japan 
from Korea." 

Questions. 

1. In the very beginning of these studies (Nations of An- 
tiquity) what was said regarding traditionalism, and its in- 
fluence upon the character and civilization of the Chinese? 

2. What was the occasion of the war with Japan in 1894? 

3. What steps were taken by the progressive party in China 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



in 1908 in the formulation of a plan of government and adop- 
tion of a Constitution? 

4. Who became regent upon the death of the emperor in 
1908? 

5. What gave rise to the Boxer rebellion, and what is the 
present attitude of China to the conditions that occasioned it? 

6. Does the occupation of other nations in China help or 
hinder her rapid progress? 

Africa. 
For the full exploration of the Kongo region the African 
International Association was organized and Stanley was re- 
turned to Africa to make a full investigation. After five 
years of labor he rendered a glowing report of the country 
and its possibilities. Representatives of fourteen nations met 
in Berlin in 1885 and passed the Great Charter of the Kongo 
Free State. 

1. What were the provisions of this Charter regarding the 
slave trade, liquor traffic and free trade? 

2. In giving Belgium the right to annex the Kongo States 
as Belgian territory what responsibilities were laid upon 
Belgium by the powers regarding the Charter? 



3. What is included in the federation, the United States of 
South Africa? 

4. The Constitution of this federation was accepted by the 
British Parliament and resembles that of Canada. To what 
peoples is the right of franchise restricted? 

The Chart. 

The study of the period represented by this chart carries 
the historical movement to the present moment with the ex- 
ception of the attention to be given to American history in 
the following studies. The first thing to do in the review of 
any period by the chart is to note the beginning and end of 
the period which it represents, or the historical range. Then 
the facts relating to each state, and finally a contemporary 
study of all the events. Thus the history of all the states of 
the period forms a unit. After this manner the student can 
quickly reconstruct this closing period in European history by 
following the analysis of the chart and discover the advance 
made in the institutions and general development of each 
State. 



(American fffisfory-iDiseovery and Golonizaiion 



tolumbus 




.Suropean conditions 
and exploration. 
^.Society transformed by 
the {Renaissance. 
X.Priority of discovery claimed 
by many nations, accounts 
of Worse manuscripts. 



Golonizaiion 1600-1768 




l.Golumbus, 1486-U 

Sheories. (Assistance. 

forages. ^Discovery. 
2,jGater discovery. {From 

Gaboi to ^Magellan. 
^.Spanish conquests. 
4.cFrench failure in (America. 
B.&lizabethan seamen, (Drake, {Raleigh,* 



She South 



I. Snglish Golonizaiion, 1600-1700. 

Sn Virginia, {Maryland, Garolinas. 
ft.She South in 1700. 

Social organization, religious and intel- 
lectual conditions. 
Mew England. 1808-1700. 
Plymouth. 

Smigration of Separatists. {Mayflower. 
{Massachusetts Soy. 

Puritan emigration. 
Gonnecticui. 

SCew Siaven founded. She Slue JOaws. 
Union of Providence and {Rhode island. 
{Maine and Sfew Hampshire. 

Sranl to Sorges and {Mason; 
Survey, 1643-1700. Gonfederalion, Self- 
government, (After the {Restoration. 



She {Middle Golonies. 1609-1718. 



She {Dutch and Snglish in Sfew Q/ork. 
{Rise and fall of Sfew Sweden.. 

{the Snglish in (Delaware. 
Pennsylvania. Penn and the {Indians. 
{French Golonizaiion. 1589-1718. 



She new era. Ghamplain, the Jfesuiis, 

{Radisson, {Marquette, tfoliel, JjaSalle. 
She Stru g gle for a Gontinent. 1689-1763. 

Sngland and {France in (America. 

She final contest. She Sreaty of Paris 
and Proclamation of 1763. 
She Snplish Golonies. 1700-1763. 



{Founding of Georgia. Gharter and grants. 
Dissension and Union. 

foundary disputes, 
reservation of Gharters. 
Srowih of the spirit of union. 



Gharlld 



AMERICAN HISTORY-DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION 



As Columbus, aided by Isabella, started across the seas to 
test his theories, the modern era had dawned. During the 
Middle Ages there were no great nations in the modern ap- 
plication of the word. It was a period of ignorance and dis- 
organization with feudalism the dominant political institution. 
The Renaissance was transforming the intellectual, political 
and social conditions and bringing about the modern era. Italy 
was leading Europe in culture. Savonarola was a power in 
Florence but was passing on to his martyrdom (1498). In the 
midst of this great revival, and with the beginning of great 
nations, a new world came to light. France was becoming 
centralized. The War of the Roses in England had just ended 
and the two houses were united. In Germany Frederick III, 
the last emperor to be crowned at Rome, was in the last year 
of his reign and Maximilian I about to succeed to the throne. 
Spain was engaged in the work of conquest. The fires of the 
Reformation were about to light up the skies of Europe. It 
was the breaking up of the old order. The general stir and 
revival of learning, new inventions and discoveries were 
creating a new order. Political and social forces were engaged 
in the struggle for religious liberty. A new "individualism 
manifested itself in the development of a national spirit. Men 
began to inquire the reason and basis for a world empire, to 
the maintenance of which the Christian Church had com- 
mitted itself, and for which it asked the allegiance of the peo- 



ples of Europe. This resulted in a tendency to withdraw al- 
legiance from the empire and extend it to the prince of an 
area more closely bound together by common interests and pur- 
poses." 

Seeking a new route to India a new continent arose in the 
pathway of the discoverers. But prior to this the work of dis- 
covery had begun. The Azores were discovered in 1441, and 
Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1487, believing he had 
found the path to the Indies. 

It was a propitious moment for the discovery of America in 
whose history and civilization the growing sense of liberty was 
to be given such an expression. Everything was beginning 
anew which formed a new epoch in human history. Thus it 
was under such conditions of change, discovery, revival and 
revolution that America came upon the stage of action, a new 
world at the beginning of a new era in the passing away of the 
old order and the institution of the new. It is thus important 
that we understand the general trend of the new spirit, a spirit 
of larger freedom, in which the new continent was born to 
the world. Already that which America was to exemplify so 
greatly had taken definite form in the mind of Europe, and 
under larger impulses she was brought into being. 

In our previous studies we have necessarily followed in a 
general way the course of American history as it has been 
bound up with the States of Europe. The only way to ap- 



191 



192 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



proach America is the way to approach any historic period or 
event, i. e., to follow the course of history until we come to it. 
It is the only way by which to gain a proper appreciation of 



its significance. It is because we have been following the path- 
way of the ages that we are now prepared to pursue intelli- 
gently our study of American history. 



ANCIENT 
AMERICA 



Physical 



Inhabitants 



Exploration 



1. One of the oldest land formations of the globe. 

2. Climate, rainfall, animal life, vegetation. 

3. Minerals. Gold, silver, iron, lead, copper, zinc, coal, petroleum, etc. 



4. Divisions 



The Atlantic Slope. 
The Gulf Slope. 
The Great Lakes Slope. 
The Pacific Slope. 



1. Little is known of the antiquity of man in America. 

2. Mound Builders — ancestors of the Indians. 



3. Indian 



Four great families — Algonquin, Iroquois, Sioux, Musk- 

hogean. 
Customs. Home, occupation, food, warfare, religion, 

burial, etc. 
Political and social organization. 



1. Commerce and trade routes to the East. 

2. Pre-Columbian exploration. Marco Polo, Diaz. 

3. Columbus. Theories, voyages and results. 

4. Later explorers. The Cabots, Americus Vespucius, Balboa, Ponce de 

Leon, Magellan. 



MODERN ERA. 



193 



Questions and Topics for Study. 

The following works are commended to the student: Ten 
Colonies by Thwaites ; Channing's Students' History of the 
United States; Fiske's Discovery of America; The European 
Background of American History (The American Nation, 
Vol. I) ; Hart's Source Book of American History; Kingsley's 
Westward Ho. 

1. What effect do the physical features of a country such 
as variety of climate, have upon the character of the people? 
Are the people who live among the hills a different sort of peo- 
ple from those who live in a prairie country? 

2. Is America lacking in any natural resources? Is she de- 
pendent upon any other part of the world for any minerals? 
For food supplies? 

3. Why were the American aborigines called Indians, and 
by whom? 

4. What were the Mound Builders ? 

5. Explorations. 

(1) What rendered it necessary to find a new route to 
India ? What did the Turk have to do with it ? 

(2) State the theories of Columbus. 

(3) First voyage of Columbus. Cooper's novel, Mercedes 
of Castile. 

(4) How did the name America come to be applied to the 
new world? 

(5) What events in Spain were contemporaneous with 
Spanish exploration in America? She came to power in 



Europe in 1492; what happened in 1588? Has any region 
been greatly benefited by the occupation of Spain ? 

6. French Colonization. 

(1) Give three reasons for the failure of French Coloniza- 
tion. 

(2) Who were the leading French explorers? 

7. English seamen. 

England was the last of the great nations to become seriously 
engaged in American colonization. 

( 1 ) Name the five leading seamen in the period of Elizabeth 
who took up the work of exploration. 

(2) Which of these accomplished the most and what spe- 
cial interest attached to Raleigh's expedition? 

8. Colonization. 

(1) Outline the facts of colonization in the South from 
1600 to 1700. 

What great event held Europe during the sixteenth century, 
and what effect did it have upon definite efforts to colonize 
America ? 

What were the relations of John Smith to the Virginian 
Settlement? Trace the early developments in Virginian 
colonization. 

(2) Colonization of Maryland and the Carolinas. 

"No fact of colonial history is more admirable than the man- 
ner in which the colony of Maryland was founded and con- 
ducted by its proprietors." 

Trace the events that justify this statement. 



194 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



(3) What were the religious conditions in England that 
brought about the colonization in New England? 

Who were the Puritans and Separatists, and what was the 
Mayflower compact? 

Trace the general industrial and political developments of 
this colonization. What interest in religious controversies ob- 
tained at this time? 

(4) Colonization of the Middle Colonies. 



Trace the rise and fall of Dutch colonization. 

To what extent was Penn associated with the colonization 
of Pennsylvania? 

(5) Between what two nations was the contest for this con- 
tinent waged, and what was settled by the Treaty of Paris 
and Proclamation of 1763? 

Give reasons why it was well that this country in its early 
history came under the power and institutions of Great Britain. 



/Revolutionary Period 



Provincialism So ^ 

Progress of the War, 1775-1778 

1. do thetMecklenburg (Declaration. 
&aking of Siconderago and Grown Point, 
She Second Continental Gongress, 1775. 
Appointment ofSeorge Washington* 
&attle of&unker&ttll, 177S. 

\<efteps leading to independence. tMecklenburg 
QeginningsK ^Declaration. (America's final petition. / Victory 

of the War, \2. do the Sfrench Ctlliance. / and 

1645-1775 \ declaration ofSndevendence. /independence 

1. England's politi- \ tfigned (tugust 2, 1776. /\. Progress of the 

cal situation re- \<Svacuation of Sfew Qfork. / Gonflict. 

garding parties etcS. Washington's retreat. Victories / Svacuation of Phlla- 
2. (Questions involving \ at Srenton and Princeton. / delphia. (tmerican victor- 
Ctmerican interests. \6arleton's invasion of / ies, tmonmouth, dVew port, etc. 

a.Siesistance. internal lax-\ STew flfork. /She efouth. Charleston taken. 

ation. tflamp Ctcl.Qpposilion\Gonditions at Valley / Sreason of {Benedict Ctrnold* 
h. Sheories of representation. \ 9orge. /2.SCaval warfare. 

Constitutional relations of \She &rench / She state of the navy. 

Sritain and the Colonies. \ Ctlliance. / Paul J?ones> services, 

&.@eginning of Conflicts. \ / She &rench fleet. 

She Soston SMassacre. (Boston Sea \ /^.Victory. 



Party. She &ive intolerable Gets. 

4. She Gontinental Gongress, 1774. 

(Declaration of Slights. 

5. She Provincial Gongress. jS (Tmerican 

Siebellion in Massachusetts. / independence 

Ghart 14 



Gornwallis and Sreene in the tfbuih. 
She Qforktown campaign. Surrender 

of Gornwallis October 19, 1781. 

She terms of the Sreaty of Paris, 
1783. 



REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD 



We enter a period of revolution not confined to the great 
crisis in American history. For over a hundred years England 
had been passing through a period of political development 
from the Commonwealth and Protectorate to the Restoration 
under Charles II and on to the House of Hanover and the three 
Georges. As elements in this development were the Habeas 
Corpus Act and the Bill of Rights. In France Absolutism 
had been carried with a high hand by Louis XIV and failed 
under the two following monarchs. It brought France to 
the verge of the French Revolution. The people were awak- 
ened to a more intelligent appreciation of things, and the 
revolution by which America had just accomplished her in- 
dependence contributed greatly to the awakening, and empha- 
sized the new doctrines of such men as Voltaire and Rousseau. 

The student of history should neither minimize the exempli- 
fication of the principles of liberty in the American Revolution 
nor make the mistake of supposing that the proclamation of 
such principles was something quite new. Back of such a 
declaration was the political history of the mother country 
for a considerable period. The weapons used by America were 
those formed by Great Britain when step by step she estab- 
lished these fundamental principles and had given them a large 
expression by the time that America brought them to their 
largest application. The American Revolution was, therefore, 
but an exercising of what was already operative in British in- 



stitutions and not a creation of new ideals. For centuries these 
principles had been formulating, and by the time of George 
III had become a clearly defined system of political rights, all 
of which was as much a part of the political ideas and under- 
standing of the Colonies as of the people across the water. 

Three notable documents mark the development of human 
liberty as pertaining to the Anglo-Saxon race: The Magna 
Charta, the Declaration of Independence and the Emancipa- 
tion Proclamation. From the moment that the first of these 
instruments was framed, in 1215, the course of English liber- 
ties was determined for all time. The principles of that docu- 
ment were destined centuries afterwards to cross the sea and 
find expression in the liberty proclamation of the New World. 
Between these two great moments this race had labored with 
its problem and the solution of it appeared in other great en- 
actments such as the Bill of Rights and Petition of Right. 
Thus the precedent in English political development was al- 
ready established when the American Colonies framed their 
historic proclamation. It was the fruitage, the grand resultant 
of English institutions and was a challenge to Great Britain 
to acknowledge her own splendid principles. Unless we have 
discovered this setting of the Declaration of Independence we 
shall study the history of this movement in a most superficial 
manner. In this great crisis no new basic principles were 
created, but simply the application of those already existing 



197 



MODERN ERA 



and well defined. There were Englishmen who believed in 
American independence as much as did those who signed our 
great document. The issue of the struggle was another victory 



for the principles of English institutions established by the 
mother country in the course of her historic development. 



GREAT DOCUMENTS 



Magna Charta 



Petition of Right 



Bill of Rights 



Declaration of 
Independence 



Principles of Liberty. 
i 
i. Signed at Runnymede by King John in 1215. 

2. A guarantee of freedom and just liberties of the people. 

3. Protection of the rights of the individual submitted to fair trial by a jury. 

4. The standard of a growing freedom and a safeguard of English liberties. 

1. Framed in 1628. 

2. Revenues submitted to Parliament. 

3. Provided against arbitrary and illegal official actions. 

4. The Second great step in the formation of the English Constitution. 

1. Drawn up in 1689. 

2. Put an end to all claim of divine right. 

3. Provided for the rights of Parliament and the rights of the people re- 

garding the crown and Parliament. 

4. The final step in the formation of the Constitution and provisions for 

English liberty. 

1. Its adoption by twelve colonies July 4, 1776- 

2. Five fundamental propositions: 

Political and social equality. 

These rights grounded in the moral constitution of the individual. 
Governments instituted to secure these rights. 
Power of government derived from the consent of the governed. 
Justification for the formation of a new government if necessary to 
these principles. 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



199 



Questions and Topics for Study. 

The student will find the following works helpful : Burke's 
speech Conciliation With America, The Repeal of the Stamp 
Act, by Pitt; Hart's Formation of the Union, Frothingham's 
Rise of the Republic, chs v-vii. ; Fisher's The American Revo- 
lution, Foster's Century of American Diplomacy. 

1. To the Rebellion in Massachusetts. 

(1) What had been the policy in England respecting re- 
straint of colonial trade and manufactures? 

(2) Describe in a general way the questions that led to the 
Revolution such as Resistance, Internal Taxation, Stamp Act 
and Representation. 

(3) From what standpoint was England technically right 
and justified in attempting to compel the colonies to an ac- 
ceptance of her position? 

(4) What importance attached to the Continental Congress 
in 1774? The Provincial Congress? 

(5) At what point did the war begin? 

2. To America's final petition. 

(1) What were the principal acts of the Second Continental 
Congress ? 

(2) Lecky says, "To the appointment of Washington, far 
more than to any other single circumstance, is due the ultimate 
success of the American Revolution." Describe the character 



of Washington as a man of great judgment, self-control, dig- 
nity and firmness. Give illustrations of these characteristics. 

(3) In what was the Battle of Bunker Hill both a defeat 
and a victory for the Americans ? 

(4) State some of the steps leading to independence be- 
ginning with the Mecklenburg Declaration. 

3. To the French Alliance. 

(1) Who framed the Declaration of Independence? State 
its five leading principles. Can you recall any other great 
Declaration of Independence by any other nation prior to this 
time? 

(2) Describe the military operations to the winter at Valley 
Forge. What were some of the great battles, defeats and vic- 
tories of the American forces? In what sense was this a 
period of suspense? 

(3) What were the French motives in giving America the 
support of her alliance? 

4. To the surrender of Cornwallis. 

(1) Describe the military operations to the taking of 
Charleston. With what great disadvantages did the British 
have to contend? Which side had the greater advantage? 

(2) Explain the treason of Benedict Arnold. What were 
the grounds ? 

(3) What was the state of the American navy and what 



MODERN ERA. 



great services were rendered the cause of independence in 
naval warfare? 

(4) Trace the military operations from the warfare of 
Cornwallis and Greene in the South to the surrender of Corn- 
wallis, at Yorktown. 

(5) What were the terms of the Treaty of Paris? 



The Chart. 

Note that the Chart describes the movement from Provin- 
cialism to Nationality. Columbus discovered a new world, but 
Washington became the father of a new nation. "Providence 
left him childless that his country might call him father." By 
the chart review the various periods of the conflict, and the 
great moments of the entire period, and note to what all lines 
converge. 



Gritical and Gonslitutional Periods 



(Prtic les of Gonfederation \ Problems {facing the Gonfederaiion 
l.Ctdopied by Gongress \ I. {Relating to {finances. 

{JVovember 15, 1777 \ 2. {Relating to the Ctrmy. 

2. Provisions of the CPrticles.\ 3. {Relating to {foreign {Rela- 
3. (Questions ^Debated: estate \ tions. 

{Representation in Gon- \ 4. {Relating to iflale 3 roubles. 



gress, Ownership of IVesten 
jCands, {Settlement of Snlex 
stale ^Disputations. 
4. {Ratification of the ffriicles. 

Ctnapolis Gonveniion 

\.Sxisting Gonditions. 

l.iDecline of commerce and 

navigation of the {Mississippi. 

2. Gongress and state defiance. 

3,Srowlh of federal sentiment. 
\\.{Jhe Gonvention, 1786. 

I. {Represented by five states, 

2.Ctdoption of {Hamilton's resolutions. 



(Tdoption and 

l.cJhe supreme law of the land. 
2,Unanimous adoption cfept. 16, 1787. 
3.{figned by 39 members representing!! states 
4.t$ts literary form due to Governor {Morris 

Ghart 15 



{Jhe Problems of a 
{JVew {JYation. 




Organization of the West 

1. {Jhe eftate Glaims. 

2. {J he Gessions Sranted. 

3. {Jhe Ordinance of 1784. 

4.{fhe Ohio Gompany. 

5. {Jhe Ordinance of 1787. 

{Religious freedom, 

JJegal provisions. 

Sducation. 

{Regarding slavery, 

Gonstilutional Gonvention 




l.CFt Philadelphia, 1787. 
{Jhe {Jhree Gompromises. 
{Jhe first. {Regarding stale repre- 
sentation in the two houses. 
{Jhe second. {Relative to slave stales. 
{Jhe third. Gontinuance of slavery 
till 1808, and navigation acts. 
3. Origin and {JYature of the Gonstitution* 



{Ratification 

l.cf ubmitied to Gongress cfept. 20, 1787. 
2.{federalists and (Tnli-{7ederalists. 
^.{Ratification by the cftates, 1787-1790. 
4.{Jen amendments adopted in 1791. 



CRITICAL AND CONSTITUTIONAL PERIODS 



In our American studies two things have been distinguished : 
that the work of exploration and discovery produced a new 
world, and passed through a colonial period ; that the struggle 
for independence gave to the world a new nation to create 
new ideas, principles, forces and opportunities. At that mo- 
ment, the moment when Cornwallis handed his sword to 
Washington, the history and progress of humanity were given 
a new determination. The civilization of the world tending to 
a certain point was now to come to its larger fruition. What 
England had established as great principles has come to 
fruitage in great results. When King John was compelled to 
sign the Magna Charta, in 121 5, he helped to frame the Decla- 
ration of Independence. It might even be said that through 
America England was to accomplish institutionally what she 
could not accomplish by herself, that on this soil her principles 
were to come to their largest expression and realization. She 
is indeed the mother country, and her child is to apply those 
principles bequeathed to it by virtue of that independence which 
she wrested from the parental hand. 

Let us be careful to hold things in their proper connection, 
to see in what sense America is an effect as well as a new cause 
in the world's unfolding. We have attempted at every point 
to distinguish the interrelations of the nations and guard 
against the danger of holding any of them in isolation. His- 



tory is a unit passing from infancy to maturity by the co-opera- 
tion of all the parts. The contribution of each has been es- 
sential to the whole. What a mistake it would be to lose sight 
of this fact and forget all that has preceded that made this new 
nation possible, and determined its birth by the struggles and 
developments of the ages. 

This new nation, having passed through a certain formative 
period, stands face to face with its problems and its future as 
does any young person leaving the parental roof to plan and 
live his life. It remains to be seen whether he has been in- 
structed in sound principles of conduct, and with what ability 
and wisdom he shall invest them in the business of life. From 
the formative he passed to the critical stage of his career, and 
that is just what America did at Yorktown. Such a period is 
fraught with vital importance because at this point must be 
settled the adoption of those principles for the government of 
the future. These are worked into a Constitution, a best judg- 
ment of things and a declaration of procedure. 

In this new situation America had the advantage of all the 
past. It was a tremendous asset, while before her lay tre- 
mendous liabilities. The inheritor of the ages in governmental 
history she creates a Constitution as the rudder of this new 
ship of state, and it remains to be seen whether it is a true helm 
in its essential constituents and judiciously handled. 



203 



204 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



The Constitution. 

A call was issued by Congress to the States to be repre- 
sented at a convention in Philadelphia "for the sole and ex- 
press purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation, and 
reporting to Congress and the several legislatures such altera- 
tions and provisions therein as shall, when agreed to in 
Congress and confirmed by the States, render the Federal 
Constitution adequate to the exigencies of government and the 
preservation of the Union." The convention met May 14. 
1787. To preside over its deliberations George Washington 
was called from Mount Vernon. The distinction and ability 
of its members made this convention one of the most remark- 
able, if not the most remarkable convention in the nation's 
history. Madison, the foremost figure on the floor of the con- 
vention, has been called the "Father of the Constitution." 

A new government, different in form and feature from the 
Confederation, was favored by Washington, Madison and 
Hamilton. The matter was brought to a head by the resolu- 
tions of Randolph to the effect, "That a national government 
ought to be established, consisting of supreme legislature, 
executive and judiciary," which decided "that the proposed 
constitution should establish a government not of the States 
but of the people — for a government, to be supreme, must have 
authority over the individual citizens within its domain." The 
question of state sovereignty involved in the discussion 
brought the convention to the verge of dissolution, which was 
only saved by the compromise proposed "giving states equal 



representation in the upper house and proportional represen- 
tation in the lower." 

A second compromise had to do with slave states. The 
leading representatives of Virginia favored emancipation of 
the slaves, while Georgia and the Carolinas would refuse to 
support a constitution that interfered with that institution. 
The escape from this difficulty lay in the compromise proposed 
by Madison "that five slaves be equivalent to three free per- 
sons as a basis for representation of the Southern States in 
Congress." The compromise was adopted but it was not for- 
seen how it was to involve serious considerations in the future 
history of the nation. 

The next question of vital importance to the convention 
was the importation of slaves and the power to be placed in 
the hands of Congress regarding the regulation of commerce. 
The compromise adopted secured the consent of the North to 
the continuance of the slave trade till 1808, while the South 
agreed that Congress should pass navigation acts by a majority 
vote. "It is noteworthy that in the debate upon this compro- 
mise no one attempted to justify slavery upon principle. It 
was considered a necessary expedient for the development of 
the resources of the South, but it was believed by many that 
the emancipation of the slaves in all the states was close at 
hand." 

The following interesting incident closes the Journal of the 
Constitutional Convention by Madison : "Whilst the last 
members were signing, Doctor Franklin, looking towards the 



MODERN ERA. 



205 



president's chair, at the back of which a rising sun happened 
to be painted, observed to a few members near him that 
painters had found it difficult to distinguish in their art a 
rising from a setting sun. 'I have,' said he, 'often and often 
in the course of the sessions and the vicissitudes of my hopes 
and fears as to its issue, looked at that behind the president 
without being able to tell whether it was rising or setting ; but 
now at length I have the happiness to know that it is a rising 
and not a setting sun.' " 

Questions. 

The following works will be found helpful in the study of 
this period: Critical Period of American History, pp. 50-211, 
by Fiske. The State, pp. 469-473, by Wilson. Hinsdale's 
American Government, chs. vii-x. Bryce's American Com- 
monwealth, vol. i, chs. i-iv, xxxi-xxxv. 

1. The Critical Period. 

Note carefully the two tendencies of this period — one to- 
ward individual liberty as exhibited in weak central govern- 
ment, the other toward a strong central government by centrali- 
zation of power. 

(1) What degree of sovereignty was allowed each state by 
the Articles of Confederation? 

(2) What requirement did these Articles lay upon the 
states in the matter of abiding by the decisions of Congress? 

(3) What financial problems confronted the Confederation? 



(4) How was the West organized by the cession of 
Western territory to the government? 

(5) What provision was made by the Ordinance of 1787 
regarding religious liberty, legal rights, rights of Indians, re- 
lation of territory to the Union, admission of states and pro- 
hibition of slavery? 

2. Constitutional Period. 

(1) What fundamental relation did the new government 
sustain to the forms of the old? 

(2) Is state sovereignty incompatible with federal sover- 
eignty ? 

(3) Would it have been propitious to attempt a definite 
settlement of the question of slavery in the Constitutional Con- 
vention? What might have been the consequence? Can a 
permanent government be established upon compromises? 

(4) What were the points at issue between the Federalists 
and Anti-Federalists ? Who were some of the leading Federal- 
ists? Fiske calls the Federalist, the collection of essays con- 
taining the positions of the Federalists, "the most profound 
and suggestive treatise on government that has ever been 
written." 

The Chart. 

The leading facts of the two periods are outlined by the 
Chart and the design should enable the student not only to 



2o6 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



quickly review the facts but to hold them in memory. Note 
the length of the entire period as given in the center of the 



Chart. After studying the text books on this subject test the 
thoroughness of the work by filling in the outline of the Chart. 



g Q {he Givil War-Organization, development. Sectionalism, 



r\.®eginnings under the 6™*/**"**°%. 
f inauguration of the first President. . 

i&rgantzation completed, departments established. 

financial measures and the judiciary. ., 

Ct decade of prosperity. 

\.do the attempt to divide the Union, 1800-1807. 

{Republican principles. &urr ani^amMon. 
ft.fforeign relahons, 1803-12. importation ^ 3"*» 

and tMilan decrees. Smbargo Get. She War -Party. 
b.War of 1812-15 and {Reorganization. Sconomie con- 

ditiois. tariff. Standing of the nation "&>"£* 
4.dTational growth. {Monroe and Monroe <0octnne. 

Gdams* administration. Jackson's election. 
&.&irsl half century of progress. 

^i&^:Ztl'Xl^a!Z, m .n l . .8*9-40. Sinan.ial panic. 

<yv moral progress, tfhe Whig -Party. „ff an s a 

? $K4.0he Mexican War, 1845-48. Gauses. Political effects. 
£\5. Slavery in America, 1619-1850. - 

V v 6.«7o IheGrisis, 1848-60. She great ^T^Kfc 
v <7Ae 0r«<* efrof/ {Decision. JCincoln-douglas debate. 
Parlies-democratic, Gonslitulional-Union. {Republican. 



'oilnehinatnt S. development 



Ghart 16 



ORGANIZATION, DEVELOPMENT, SECTIONALISM 



With its constitution formed, adopted and ratified the new 
nation took its place among, the nations of the world under a 
definite form of government. It was like all other great be- 
ginnings. It drew to itself the attention of Europe and espe- 
cially of Great Britain. Would the new political enterprise 
succeed? Set forth from her English moorings and launched 
upon the sea of independent national procedure this new Ship 
of State must enter the billows and weather the gales with her 
own hand upon the helm. She has boxed her compass and set 
her sails, and her future is all before her. How well her keel 
has been laid, how solid her bulwarks, how seaworthy in all 
essential particulars are for the future to determine. Whether 
it is a safe political enterprise or a great speculation that has 
thrown out to the breeze its banner, Republicanism, remains to 
be seen. It is a thing that has been fought for. It has been 
baptized with the best blood of the people. Every bolt was 
fashioned upon the anvil of conflict. Patriotism is stitched 
into every sail. It may be discovered that within her is some 
defective timber that out in the high seas may occasion con- 
cern. But with all her hopes she is afloat, the breath of heaven 
in her sails and the hand upon the wheel. 

This period, from 1788 to i860, might be regarded as forma- 
tive, it being a period of organization and development. Again, 
it might be regarded as transitional. The period lies between 
independence and unity. Fighting for liberty against another 



State is not the same thing nor the same sort of a crisis as 
fighting for her component self, for her preservation as a 
national unit. Conditions exist that are yet to give the 
nation the greatest concern, to threaten the foundations of 
the union and become disintegrative. The very constitution 
by which the states are federated is yet to be appealed to as a 
ground of separation. 

With a continent of such extent and such resources com- 
mitted to her America holds in her hands a colossal oppor- 
tunity. But along with this are colossal responsibilities and 
problems. To organize her affairs and establish her institu- 
tions upon a sound basis will call into requisition all the forti- 
tude and wisdom she can bring to the task. It is the greatness 
and not the smallness of things that appals one. Great posses- 
sions make great demands for their best use and disposition. 
Again, this nation does not live unto itself any more than does 
any nation. The world is a unit and America must contribute 
to the whole of which she is a part. Others have contributed 
greatly to her and she must pay her debt to the world. She is 
not to be a miser hoarding up her untold riches for the com- 
fort and satisfaction of a single nation. Her very indepen- 
dence but emphasizes her dependence and reciprocation. To 
take her place among the nations is to recognize the inter- 
national. In this is both her opportunity and her obligation. 
To better the institutions of the world political, social and 



209 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



educational, she must create and sustain them and upon them 
rear her national structure. 

During this first period of national existence there was 
much to test the strength and stability of the new nation : 
troubles with the Indians, the attempt to divide the Union, the 
War of 1812, the political revolution, financial panic, the Mexi- 
can War and the growth of sectionalism and widening the 
breach. First battles, whether those of an individual or a na- 



tion, are of peculiar importance. They distinguish traits, char- 
acteristics, tendencies. They indicate elements of weakness 
and strength. Dealing with the problems determines the course 
of procedure and specifies dominant motives and purposes. Let 
us follow the course of the new nation during this period and 
see in what manner it will panoply her for the critical moment 
she is approaching. 



Presidents. 

Washington 
1789-1797 



Adams 
1797-1801 

Jefferson 
1801-1809 



Madison 
1809-1817 



Monroe 
1817-1825 



Administrations. 

Revenue Bill and Naturalization Law. Indian War and Whisky Rebellion. Admission of Vermont, Kentucky 
and Tennessee. Treaties with England and Spain. Invention of the cotton gin. Foreign events, French 
Revolution. 

Alien and Sedition Acts. Treaty with France. Locomotive plow invented. Death of Washington. 

Embargo Act. Tripoli War. Louisiana acquired. Ohio admitted. Lewis and Clark Expedition. Invention of 
steamboat and steam dredge. 

Non-Intercourse Act. Indian War. War of 1812. Treaty of Ghent. Louisiana and Indiana admitted. Wash- 
ington burned. Mexican uprising. Invention of breech-loading rifle. 

Monroe Doctrine. Tenure of Office Act. Seminole War. Florida acquired. Treaty with Canada. Missouri 
Compromise. Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, Maine, Missouri admitted. First steam voyage across the At- 
lantic. 



Adams 
1825-1829 

Jackson 
1829-1837 



Van Buren 
1837-1841 

Harrison-Tyler 
1841-1845 



Polk 
1845-1849 



Taylor- 

Filmore 

1849-1853 

Pierce 
1853-1857 



Buchanan 
1857-1861 



MODERN ERA. 211 

Slavery in New York abolished. Death of Adams and Jefferson. First threshing machine. Passenger train. 

Bank Message. Force Act. Black Hawk and Seminole Wars. Treaty with Brazil. Anti-Slavery in New Eng- 
land. Independence of Mexico and Texas. Invention of typewriter and use of chloroform. Admission 
of Michigan and Arkansas. 

Sub-Treasury Bill. Seminole War. Friction match invented. Telegraph. Indians placed in Indian Territory. 

Annexation Bill. Dorr Rebellion. Webster-Ashburton Treaty. Texas and Florida admitted. Telegraph line 
and use of ether. Postage stamps. 

Wilmot Proviso. Mexican War. Treaty of Hidalgo. Iowa and Wisconsin admitted. Discovery of gold in 
California. Invention of sewing machine and Hoe printing press. 

Omnibus Bill. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. Fugitive Slave Law. Death of Calhoun, Webster and Clay. Cali- 
fornia admitted. Cuban Revolution. 

Kansas-Nebraska Bill. Border Warfare. Treaty with Japan. Type setting machine invented. Underground 
railroad. Lopez Expedition. 

Revolutionary Message. John Brown's Raid. Mormon Insurrection. Treaty with China. Dred Scott Decision. 
Secession. Minnesota, Kansas and Oregon admitted. Invention of sleeping car and Atlantic Cable. War 
in Mexico. 



212 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



Questions and Topics for Study. 

The student will find A Century of American Diplomacy, by 
Foster and Hart's Formation of the Union, helpful. 

1. Organization. 

(i) Was it Washington's military ability that was the lead- 
ing influence in his election? 

(2) Lodges' George Washington, vol. ii. 

(3) State what is meant by Mason and Dixon's Line. 

(4) What was the import of the Kentucky and Virginia 
Resolutions ? 

(5) What were the contentions of the Federalists and Anti- 
Federalists during this period? 

(6) The social conditions of the country. History of the 
United States, vol. ii, ch. viii, by Andrews. 

2. Development. 

( 1 ) Jefferson's Policy. Hart's Formation of the Union, pp. 
176-183. 

(2) State the leading principles of the Republican Party. 

(3) How We Bought the Great West. Scribner's Maga- 
zine, Nov. 1903. 

(4) Why did the Federalists and Spain oppose the pur- 
chase of Louisiana? 

(5) What parties opposed the embargo? How did Eng- 
land and France regard it ? 

(6) Could the War of 1812 have been declared with equal 



propriety against France? Was anything gained by the war? 

(7) The Missouri Compromise. Schurz's Henry Clay, vol. 
i, ch. viii. 

(8) The Monroe Doctrine. Foster's A Century of Ameri- 
can Diplomacy, ch. xii. 

(9) What were the general conditions as to territory, popu- 
lation, inventions, industrial enterprises, education and liter- 
ature at the close of our first half century in 1826? 

3. Sectionalism. 

Wilson's Division and Reunion, pp. 23-92, will be found 
helpful. 

(1) Was the abolishing of cabinet meetings by Jackson il- 
legal ? 

(2) Was the doctrine of nullification inconsistent with the 
Constitution ? Why did the South more than the North favor 
state sovereignty? 

(3) Why the Mexican War and what great importance at- 
tached to its political results? 

(4) Trace the history of slavery in the United States from 
1619 to 1850. 

(5) Who organized the first anti-slavery society? Name 
some of the great abolitionists. 

(6) What was the Dred Scott Decision, who rendered it, 
and why did the free states oppose it ? 

(7) What were the questions discussed in the Lincoln- 
Douglas Debate? 

(8) Distinguish the three parties at the close of this period. 



{from the Givil War to the Present dime 



(Recession and the Givil War 

1. Secession, {fo jQincoln's Shaug- 
u ration. 

Attitude of the Secessionists. 
Cttiitude of the Unionists. 
{fhe Confederacy organized, South 

Garolina Ordinance of Secession, 
{fhe compromise attempted, 
inauguration of jQincoln. 
2.{fhe War. 

{from the fall of {fort Sumter to the $j 
Smancipation Proclamation in 1863. ^S 

{Militant operations of 1861. .a 

{fhe war in the West, South West ^ 

and at the center of operations, 1862. c 
{from the Smancipation Proclamation 

to the end of the war, {May 1865. 

Gettysburg, Hficksburg, Ghickamauga. {fhe 

Srand Gampaign. 

(Tssassination of JZincoln. Social and polii 
ical results of the war. 




*2^>« 




Period of {Reconstruction 

1. {Reconstruction from 1863-66. 
beginnings of Sxecutive and Gon 
gressional {Reconstruction. 
2 {Reconstruction Acts and reconstructed 
S'tates. 
3.{from Grants {Reconstruction to the redemp. 
iion of {fCorlh Garolina and the end of 
{Reconstruction. 

4.{fhe nation's first centennial, 1876. 
© Political, educational, religious and 
3 material development. 

Period of Sxpansion 
{fo the Spanish-American War 



1. {Mc{fCinley's (Administration, 1892 -1901. 

Spanish-American War. Philippine insur- 
rection, imperialism, (tssassination. 

2.{Roosevelt's administration, 1901-09. isthmi- 
an and Panama Ganals. Alaskan boundary 
{Russo-Japanese treaty. 

Ghart 17 



attl ~ 1. 31 ayes' Administration.1877-81. 

2.&arfield-(2rlhuT Administration, 1881-85. 

tissues of the campaign, (tssassination, 
3. Cleveland's Administration, 1885-89. 
4.9farrison's Administration, 1889-93. 
5. Cleveland's Administration, 1893-97. 

{financial stringency. Venezuelan dispute* 
She United S'tates a World- Power 



3. {faffs Administration, 1909-13. Congress and 

the {Tariff. She {fficaraguan trouble. 

{/roubles in {Mexico. 
■^.Wilson's Slection and inauguration, 1913. 

{the new Party* 

tissues of the campaign. 



FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 



Great crises, in one form or another, come to all nations. 
Their importance and the proportions they assume are deter- 
mined by the principles and interests involved, the nature of the 
struggle to which they may give rise, and the final issue. Eng- 
land passed through a crisis in the English Revolution, as did 
France in the French Revolution. Europe passed through a 
crisis in the Napoleonic Era, and it was a critical period in 
American history the struggle for independence and coming to 
nationality. But the great American crisis lay in her civil 
war. From the beginning of her national life a century had 
not passed when she was plunged into the greatest civil war of 
history to preserve the Union which she had wrested from 
Great Britain. Two great principles were involved : the fed- 
eration of all the American States under one flag and govern- 
ment, and the abolition of slavery. To accomplish this was 
necessary to realize all for which she struggled from 1775 to 
1781. For the South to succeed in forming a confederation 
and separate from the Union would be, as one British states- 
man declared, nothing less than a national calamity. Again the 
emancipation of the slave rested upon a fundamental law 
clearly expressed in the Declaration of Independence. That 
great doctrine was destined to be the corner-stone in the 
second great document pertaining to the principle of liberty. 
The one demanded the other. America could not consistently 
issue the one declaration, and enter into a mighty conflict to 
sustain its basic principle, and hold in slavery a human being. 



We remarked in a former chapter the significance of the 
Magna Charta in its bearing upon American independence ; the 
connection between the two great American documents should 
be especially clear. 

Special emphasis, during these studies, have been laid upon 
the philosophy of history, that is, the discovery of the grounds 
or basic conditions in historical development and the invest- 
ment of events with their fundamental significance. This prin- 
ciple should be carried into these American studies and in its 
application to show how American ideals must become opera- 
tive in certain situations or as ideals become extinct. It is for 
us to see the dominance of certain well defined principles in 
our national history; to see how these have directed national 
aims and issues, have driven us to war, created institutions and 
have made possible our civilization. It should enable us to see 
how that underlying principles which we acknowledge cannot 
be indefinitely ignored or set aside when the occasion arises 
for they application. In the period we now enter we see how 
that problems that entered into the framing of the Constitu- 
tion rise in the pathway of the nation for final solution. A 
compromise may be a temporary, but never an ultimate,, solu- 
tion. 

In this closing period of American studies we trace the 
course of events through the struggle for the Union, the period 
of Reconstruction, the development and expansion of the 
nation and the United States as a world-power. 



215 



2l6 

Presidents. 

Lincoln- 
Johnson 
1861-1869 

Grant 
1869-1877 



Hayes 
1877-1881 

Garfield- 
Arthur 
1881-1885 

Cleveland 
1885-1889 



Harrison 
1889-1893 



Cleveland 
1893-1897 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 

Administrations. 

Emancipation Proclamation. Amnesty. Income Tax Law. Civil Rights Bill. Civil War. Burlingame Treaty. 
Admission of West Virginia, Nevada. Nebraska. Atlantic Cable laid. Assassination of Lincoln. 

Salary Act. Modoc and Sioux Wars. Treaty of Washington. Ku Klux Klan. Colored senator. Colorado 
admitted. Telephone invented. Foreign-Franco-German War. 



Anti-Chinese Bill. New Chinese Treaty. Invention of phonograph and steam heating. Electric light. 



Civil Service. Chinese Bill. Treaty with China. Apaches captured. Assassination of Garfield. Flying ma- 
chine. 

Interstate Commerce Act. Dawes' Bill. Anarchist riots. Extradition Treaty. Charleston earthquake. Wash- 
ington, Montana and Dakotas admitted. Death of Grant. 



McKinley Tariff. Silver legislation. International Copyright Law. Samoan Treaty. Reciprocity Treaty. 
Sioux War. Idaho and Wyoming admitted. Pan-American Congress. 

Columbian Exposition. Venezuelan Dispute. Income Tax. Wilson Bill. Sherman Law. Coal and Railroad 
Strikes. Utah admitted. Hawaiian Revolution. 



MODERN ERA. 



217 



McKinley- 
Roosevelt 
1897-1905 

Roosevelt 
1905-1909 



Taft 
1909-1913 

Wilson 
1913- 



Panama Canal. Northern Securities. Chinese Exclusion Bill. Arbitration Treaty. Hay-Pauncefote Treaty. 
Spanish American War. Philippine War. Hawaiin Islands, Porto Rico, Guam, Philippines and Samoa 
acquired. Wireless Telegraphy. Assassination of McKinley. 

Pure Food Law. Meat Inspection Bill. Hay-Varilla Treaty. Springfield Riot. Aeroplane. Oklahoma ad- 
mitted. Panama Canal. Death of Cleveland. Foreign-Russo-Japanese War. 

Tariff Law. Corporation Tax. The Champlain and Hudson-Fulton Celebrations. The President's Journey. In 
1789 the Senate numbered 26 and the House 65. In 1909 the Senate numbered 92 and the House 391. 

Campaign of 1912. A new party — the Progressive Party. William Jennings Bryan Secretary of State. 



Questions and Topics for Study. 

1. To the Emancipation Proclamation. 

Rise and Fail of the Southern Confederacy by Jefferson 
Davis. Rhodes' History of the United States from the Com- 
promise of 1850, Vol. Ill, pp. 1-114. 

(1) What were the political issues in the campaign of i860? 

(2) What was the contention in the South Carolina Or- 
dinance of Secession as the ground of the Southern Con- 
federacy ? 

(3) What was the immediate cause of the war, secession or 



slavery ? Was the South right in its interpretation of the Con- 
stitution and basing its action upon that interpretation? 

(4) With what did the war open? 

(5) Military movements of the war. Dodge's Bird's-eye 
Viezv of the Civil War. 

(6) The Crisis. By Churchill. 

(7) Trace the military movements of the second year of the 
war. What were the gains and losses ? 

(8) Stonewall Jackson. Cooke's Surry of Eagle's Nest. 

(9) When did Lincoln issue the Emancipation Proclama- 
tion? Why not before? 



2l8 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



2. From Chancellorsville to Appomatox. 

(i) Campaigns in the West. Grant's Personal Memoirs, 
Vol. I, p. 422; Vol. II, pp. 1-88. 

(2) What were the great decisive battles of this period? 
In which of them existed a great crisis? See Wilson's Divi- 
sion and Reunion, pp. 233-238. 

(3) Juvenile fiction. With Lee in Virginia by Henty. 

(4) In what condition did the war leave both North and 
South? 

(5) Do you think that the South would have emancipated 
the slaves in time, and if so would it have spared the country 
a civil war? 

(6) Abraham Lincoln by Morse. How would you compare 
Lincoln with Washington? 

3. Period of Reconstruction. 

Scott's Reconstruction During the Civil War. Hart's Source 
Book, Nos. 127-132. 

(1) Trace Executive and Congressional Reconstruction. 

(2) The work of Grant to the end of Reconstruction. 

(3) The panic of 1873. Dewey's Financial History of the 
United States, pp. 370-372. 

(4) The Centennial Exposition. History of the United 
States in Our Own Time, ch. viii, by Andrews. 

4. Expansion to the War with Spain. 



Adams and Trent's History of the United States, pp. 473- 
542. 

(1) Describe briefly the issues of the campaigns of 1876, 
1880, 1884, 1888, 1892, 1896. 

(2) What was the effect of the McKinley Tariff, the Wilson 
Bill and Sherman Law? What caused the financial stringency 
during Cleveland's second administration? 

(3) The Trust Problem by Jenks. 

(4) Labor Problems by T. S. Adams. 

5. From McKinley's election to the present time. 

(1) What is the object in the construction of the Panama 
Canal ? Do you think it should be opened freely to the nations ? 

(2) What principle was involved in the war with Spain? 
Was it Imperialism? 

The War with Spain, by Lodge. 
Our Navy in the War with Spain, by Spears. 
What is the present political status of Cuba and the Philip- 
pines ? 

The Inhabitants of the Philippines, by Sawyer. 

(3) The United State a Wo rid- Power. 

What contributed mainly to this national prestige? A 
Century of Expansion, by Johnson. 

(4) What has been the general prosperity of the country 
during the past ten years, and what special problems con- 
front us ? 

(5) In the last campaign (1912) what new party polled 



MODERN ERA. 



219 



4,168,566 popular votes and 88 electoral votes? What were 
some of the radical provisions in its platform? 

The Colonial and Revolutionary periods developed a litera- 
ture by such writers as Bradford, Winthrop, the Mathers, 
Anne Bradstreet, Jonathan Edwards, Benjamin Franklin, 
Thomas Jefferson, Timothy Dwight, Barlow, Charles Brock- 
den Brown the first American to make literature a profession. 

The Republic produced such writers as Irving, Cooper, 
Bryant, Taylor, Whitman, Emerson, Longfellow, Hawthorne, 
Lowell, Holmes, Whittier, Bancroft, Prescott, Motley, Poe, 
Lanier, and an extended list of writers since the Civil War. 
This literary activity has brought forth a distinctive American 
literature which has voiced the deepest thoughts and convic- 
tions of the people and has stimulated the new nation to lofty 
ideals. As Longfellow said : "Great men stand like solitary 
towers in the city of God, and secret passages running deep 
beneath external nature give their thoughts intercourse with 
higher intelligences, which strengthens and consoles them, and 
of which the laborers on the surface do not even dream." 

We have traced our national course to the present moment. 
The rest is all before us. The history of the world has taught 
us the great truths of human development, the onward march 
of the ages, man seeking his larger self-realization. The race 
has been steadily advancing to its fuller self-consciousness 
marked by its growing civilization. We have seen how nations 
are born and how they die, and have traced the progress of 



the race from East to West. On the basis of fundamental 
law all has proceeded. It has not been a chance procedure, 
but an orderly movement determined by the constituent ele- 
ments of human nature under the guidance of an All Wise 
Providence. The problems are not all solved and we are creat- 
ing new ones for future solution. It may be that to rectify 
our mistakes another age will be thrown into the confusion and 
bitterness of conflict, but in its emergence to behold a purer 
humanity, a better world. 

The outlook for America has been set forth in the follow- 
ing simple optimistic statement with which we close these 
studies : "Notwithstanding the grave problems in government 
and finance confronting the nation, she rejoices in her strength 
and looks into the future with the confidence of finding a happy 
solution for all the questions which may be encountered. The 
public conscience is being quickened; public opinion is con- 
stantly assuming a broader, saner and healthier tone, and the 
American people are gradually emerging from the period of 
materialism which is inseparable from the development of a 
new country, and are giving more consideration to the higher 
aspects of life. Each year more attention is being given to 
those forces which tend to the building of character, and less 
to those whose purpose is merely the accumulation of wealth 
and world power. As the result of a century of silent revolu- 
tion, the United States has emerged from provincialism into 
nationality, with a broader outlook and higher aspirations. 
'It is not in a splendid government supported by aristocratic 
establishments that people will find happiness, or their liberties, 



ESSENTIALS OF HISTORY. 



protection ; but in a plain system void of pomp — protecting all 
and granting favors to none — dispensing its blessings like the 
dews of heaven, unseen and unfelt save in the freshness and 



beauty they contribute to produce. It is such a government 
that our people require- — such a one in which our states may 
reign for ages to come, united, prosperous and free.' " 



NOV 14 1913 





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